"First, decide that the thing must be done; then find a way to do it."

1. Be able to describe and explain the organizational levels of the human body.

a. Cell

b. Tissue

c. Organ

d. System

2. Be able to use the special language of anatomy: terminology pertaining to body structure and position.

3. Discriminate between the two divisions of anatomy;

I. The major gross body region

1. Head and Neck

- Thyroid

- Parathyroid

2. Extremities (appendages and limbs)

3. Trunk (the body minus head, neck and extremities)

a. Thorax (chest)

b. Abdomen

c. Upper Back (between & just below shoulder blades)

d. Lumbar Region (lower back)

e. Pectoral Region (front wall of thorax)

f. Axilla (armpit region)

g. Gluteal Region (buttocks)

h. Pubic Region (groin, inguinal area, or triangular area between the thighs); continuous above with abdominal region.

i. Perineum (highest region between the thighs)

4. The upper extremity portions

a. Shoulder

b. Brachium

c. Elbow and a depression on the front of it, the Antecubital Fossa

d. Ante-brachium (forearm)

e. Wrist

f. Hand

5. The lower extremity portions

a. Hip

b. Thigh

c. Knee and the depression behind it, the Popliteal Region or Fossa

d. Leg

e. Ankle

f. Foot

a. Epithelial

b. Connective

c. Muscular

d. Nervous

e. Osteocytes

1. Directional Terms

Be able to describe the SECTIONS (a cut made by a scalpel) AND PLANES (the path taken by the scalpel while making the cut) of reference used to delineate the body geography.

a. Midsagittal

b. Frontal or Coronal

c. Transverse

Be able to describe and locate the surface anatomy of the human body. They are landmarks that can be located either by sight, Palpation (touching and feeling) or both.

a. Acromion Process (point of shoulder

b. Scapula

c. Suprasternal notch

d. Sternal angle

e. Xiphisternal junction

f. Iliac crest (crest of ilium)

g. Malleolus (medial and lateral of the ankle)

h. Tibial crest (shin)

i. Clavicle (collarbone)

Special surfaces of the abdomen- nine regions or areas, all-important in medicine.

a. epigastric

b. Hypochondriac (left and right)

c. Umbilical

d. Lumbar (left and right)

e. Hypogastric

f. Iliac (left and right)

Be able to identify and describe the main cavities of the body.

a. Orbital

b. Nasal

c. Buccal

d. Thoracic

e. Abdominal

f. Pelvic

g. Cranial

h. Spinal

Be able to describe and identify the main human body systems, which consist of organs working together to perform a common function- Ten systems

a. Skeletal

b. Muscular

c. Digestive

d. Respiratory

e. Reproductive

f. Nervous

g. Urinary

h. Circulatory

i. Endocrine

j. Integumentary

Be able to define the following terms:

a. Primary tissue

b. Secondary tissue

c. External Capsule

d. Stroma

e. Parenchyma

f. Viscera

Be able to describe the locations and functions of:

a. Serous Membranes

b. Mucous Membranes

Be able to locate the following bones:

a. Radius

b. Ulna

c. Femur

d. Tibia

e. Fibula

f. Phalanges

Be able to locate and describe the functions of the following anatomical structures:

a. Trachea

b. Lungs

c. Heart

d. Liver

e. Intestines

Be able to locate the following compartments in the body telling what organs are housed in each:

a. Thoracic Cavity

b. Pericardial Cavity

c. Pleural Cavity

d. Mediastinum

e. Abdominal Cavity

1. What are the specific statements that make up the cell theory?

2. List all of the cell parts and describe their function.

a. How does the surface area to volume ratio affect the size of a cell?

3. List the names and contributions of early microscopists.

4. What are the structural and functional differences between plant and animal cells?

5. What are the structural and functional differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

6. What are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes?

7. What are the relationships and interactions between cellular organelles?

Examples:

-What is the relationship between a lysosome and the Golgi complex?

8. What are the chemical components and functions of the cell membrane?

9. What are the circumstances under which things enter and leave through the cell membrane?

Examples:

-What affect does the size of a molecule have on whether or not it can enter a cell?

-What factors of cell membrane structure has spawned the name fluid mosaic membrane?

-What is the orientation of the phospholipids in the cell membrane?

-What are the functions of the proteins in the cell membrane?

10. What are glycoproteins and how do they create blood types?

11. Define and explain passive diffusion.

12. What is osmosis and what are the principles of passive diffusion that explain the process?

13. Define and explain active transport.

14. What is the Na/K pump and how does it work?

15. Define the following terms and provide an example of each of them:

a. facilitated transport.

b. active transport.

c. endocytosis.

d. exocytosis.

e. pinocytosis.

1. List the common elements that compose living matter.

2. What are the characteristics of elements (atoms/ isotopes/ ions); structure (nuclear and orbital), subatomic particles, atomic number, mass number, the energy level locations of the electrons, and the structure and formation of molecules?

3. What are the characteristics of a chemical equation?

4. What are the characteristics of chemical bonds (ionic, covalent), hydrogen bonds, and how the location of electrons affects the formation of chemical bonds?

5. Describe the basic chemical properties of the carbon atom.

6. Define oxidation and reduction as they relate to the movement of electrons and hydrogen.

7. What are the properties of water (polarity, solubility, adhesion, cohesion, etc.)?

8. What is pH and how it is related to the dissociation or ionization of water?

9. What is the pH scale? Describe it.

10. What is a buffer ?

11. Identify the pH's of some simple substances. (vinegar, carbonated soda, pond water, etc.)

12. Describe the hydrocarbons from Methane to Octane.

13. What are some of the differences between basic organic chemistry and biochemistry?

14. Describe the functions of the following monomers and polymers :

a. monosaccharides-polysaccharides

b. glycerin and fatty acids-triglycerides (lipids)

c. 20 amino acids-polypeptides (proteins)

d. nucleotides-DNA & RNA (nucleic acids)

15. What are the chemical properties of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids?

16. What are the names and the type of chemical bonds that connect the monomers of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids together and break them apart ?

17. Describe the structure and function of various carbohydrates (starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin).

18. What are the structural and functional differences between various lipid polymers such as saturated triglycerides, unsaturated triglycerides , steroids and phospholipids?

19. Explain each of the following structural characteristics of a protein molecule:

a. Primary Structure

b. Secondary Structure

c. Tertiary Structure

d. Quaternary Structure

20. How do the structural characteristics of a protein (fibrous or globular ) explain the following functions:

a. Support

b. Enzymes-catalytic properties

c. Transport

d. Defense

e. Hormones

f. Motion

21. How does the globular structure of a protein affect its functional properties?

22. How does the denaturation and the renaturation of a protein affect its functional properties?

23. What are the structural characteristics of the nucleic acids?

24. Describe the functions and characteristics of the following nucleic acid components:

a. the sugars (deoxyribose and ribose),

b. the phosphate molecule

c. the nitrogenous bases (A,T,C,G,U)

d. the nucleotides of the nucleic acids

e. hydrogen bonds

25. What is complementarity?

26. Identify the structural formula of monomers or polymers of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins or nucleic acids.

27. What is an ATP molecule and what is its function in biological systems?

28. What are the characteristics of an enzyme?

Examples:

-What are the effects of changing the temperature, pH, concentrations of substrate and enzyme on the rate of reaction and hence the eventual end reaction of enzyme systems?

-What do the suffixes -ase, -ose, etc. have to do with identifying specific molecules?

-Do enzymes lower the amount of activation energy needed to cause a chemical reaction to occur?

-How does the enzyme-substrate complex work to create a chemical reaction?

-What is a coenzyme and how does it work?

29. Where you would find an electron transport system in a cell and what do they do?

30. What is the function of ATP?

1. What are the definitions for the following terms?

a. tissue

b. parenchyma

c. sqamous epithelium

d. pseudostratified epithelium

e. columnar epithelium

f. polyhedral cells

g. cuboidal epithelium

h. free surface

i. lateral surface

j. goblet cells

k. microvilli

l. stratified columnar

m. stratified cuboidal

n. transitional stratified

o. simple sqamous

p. simple columnar

q. syncytial trophoblast

r. basal surface.

2. What are the locations and functions of the epithelial cells listed below?

A. Simple or stratified

1. sqamous

2. cuboidal

3. columnar

B. Transitional epithelium

C. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

D. Polyhedral cells

E. Myoepithelium

3. Match the following structures with a description of their function or location:

a. bronchi

b. conjunctiva

c. sebacious gland

d. trachea

e. larynx

f. Eustachian tubes

g. Alveoli

h. Fallopian tubes

1. What are the definitions of the following terms:

matrix

tendons

elastic fibers

ligaments

reticular fibers

collagenous fibes

thrombocytes

ground substance

mesenchymal

reticular cells

parenchymal

myeloid

hematogenic

phagocytes

lymphoid

marcrophage

adipose

reticuloendothelial

hematopoetic

chondroblast

melanocytes

monocytes

neutrophil

basophil

eosinophil

lymphocyte

platelet

megakaryocyte

myogenic

erythrocyte

mast cell

histocyte

leucocytes

2. What are the basic characteristics of connective tissue and the three elements it contains?

3. Describe and explain the structure and function of a fibroblast.

4. What is the reticuloendothelial system?

5. What are the names of the blast cells found in connective tissues?

6. What are the differences between loose and dense connective tissue?

7. What are the characteristics and functions of the erythrocytes and leucocytes (granulocytes & agranulocytes)?

8. What is the inflammation reaction and the molecules that cause the reaction; Ex. (Serotonin, heparin, histamine)?

9. What is the difference between plasma and serum?

10. What is the relationship between antigens and antibodies.?

11. What are the three types of muscles found in the human body?

12. How many skeletal muscles are found in the body?

a. Parts of a Bone-Femur or Humerus

 

b. Histological Anatomy of an Osteon

1. Be able to identify the following anatomical structures and relate them to their function:

a. belly

b. fasiculi

c. epimysium

d. endomysium

f. origin

g. insertion

i. tendon

j. antagonistic pairs

k. reciprocal innervention

l. coordination

m. sarcolemma

n. sarcoplasm

o. sarcoplasmic reticulum

p. muscle fiber

q. myofibril

r. sarcomere

s. actin

t. myosin

u. Ca++

v. ATP

w. conformational change

x. troponin

y. tropomyosin

z. rigor complex

a1. rigor mortis

b1. phosphorylate

c1. atrophy

d1. dystrophy

e1. hypertrophy

f1. motor unit

g1. curare

h1. neostigmine

2. Be able to label a diagram of the sarcomere, identifying both the banding patterns and their protein constituents.

3. Be able to describe the hierarchy of muscle anatomy from the gross to molecular level.

4. Be able to explain the formation and action of a rigor complex.

5. Relate neurotransmitter activity to the disorder of myasthenia gravis.

6. Be able to list the three types of muscles and their basic functions.

7. Be able to explain muscle tonus and its cause.

8. What is the sequence of events that to lead to pulling your finger from a candle flame? What is a reflex arch?

I. The Mouth- Buccopharyngeal Cavity

1. vomerine teeth

2. internal nares

3. maxillary teeth

4. esophagus

5. glottis

6. tongue

II. Frog Leg Dissection

Triceps femoris

Bieceps femoris

Semimembranosus

Gracillis major

Gracillis minor

Adductor magnus

Sartorius

Gastrocnemius

Peroneus

Tibialis anticus

Tibialis posticus

Extensor cruris

Tibiofibula

1. ventral abdominal vein

2. liver

3. gall bladder

4. stomach

5. pyloric sphincter

6. greater curvature

7. lesser curvature

8. pancreas

9. duodenum

10. jejunoileum

11. ileocaecal valve

12. colon

13. heart

14. ventricle

15. atria

16. lungs

17. mesenteries

18. kidneys

19. urinary bladder

20. fat bodies

21. testes- ovaries

22. cloaca

23. spleen

I. Superficials-Lateral Surface of Leg

Muscle Name	Origin	Insertion	Action
1. gluteus maximus (superficialis)	Dorsal border of the ilium	Femur near greater trochanter	Abducts thigh
2. biceps femoris	By 3 heads from sacral and caudal vertebrae	Distal head of femur and proximal 2/3rds of tibia	Abducts thigh; flexes shank
3. tensor fascia latae	Crest of ilium	Fascia latae	Tenses the lateral thigh fascia

II. Medial Superficials of Leg

Muscle Name	Origin	Insertion	Action
4. gracillis anticus	Symphysis pubis	Tibia	Adducts thigh
5. gracilis posticus	Ramus of ischium	Tuberosity of tibia	Adducts thigh

III. Deep-Medial Surface of Leg

Muscle Name	Origin	Insertion	Action
6. vastus medialis	Neck and proximal end of femur	Tuberosity of tibia via ligamentum patellae	Extensor of shank
7. pectineus	Pubic arch and iliopectineal tubercle	Shaft of femur	Adducts thigh
8. adductor longus	Ramus of pubis	Shaft of femur	Adducts thigh
9. adductor magnus	Pubis and pubic symphysis	Tuberosity of tibia via ligamentum patellae	Ramus of pubisAdducts the hind leg
10. adductor brevis	Pubis	Proximal end of femur	Adducts thigh
11. semimembranosus	Posterior edge of ischium	Medial surface of tibia	Extends thigh
12. semitendonosus	Sacral and caudal vertebrae	Tuberosity of tibia	Flexes shank

I. Lateral Deep Muscles of the Leg

Muscle Name	Origin	Insertion	Action
1. vastus lateralis	Greater trochanter	Tuberosity of tibia via ligamentum patellae	Extensor of shank
2. quadratus femoris	Posterior border of ischium	Femur	Extends and rotates thigh
3. adductor brevis	Pubis	Proximal end of femur	Adducts thigh
4. semimembranosus par cranialis	Sacral and 1st caudal vertebrae	Femur	Abducts thigh; extends shank
5. semimembranosus par caudialis	Sacral and caudal vertebrae	Medial surface of tibia	Extends thigh
6. adductor magnus	Pubis and pubic symphysis	Tuberosity of tibia via ligamentum patellae	Adducts the hind leg
7. gastrocnemius	Medial and lateral epicondyles of the femur	Tuber calcanei	Extend the hind foot
8. soleus	Head of fibula	Tuber calcanei	Extend the hind foot
9. peroneus longus	Head of fibula and lateral condyle of tibia	1st metatarsal and 1st cuneform	Flexes foot
10. tibialis cranialis (anterior)	Later condyle, tuberosity and ventral crest of tibia	1st cuneform and 1st metatarsal	Flexes hind foot
11. externsor digitorium longus	Lateral epicondyle of femur	3rd phalanx of digits 2 to 5	Extends the long digits

I. Thoracic Cavity and Visceral Organs

1. Pericardial sac and membranes

2. heart

3. atria

4. ventricles

5. lungs

6. pleural cavities

7. trachea

8. esophagus

II. Abdominal Cavity and Visceral Organs

1. liver

2. spleen

3. stomach

4. pyloric sphincter

5. greater curvature

6. lesser curvature

7. pancreas

8. duodenum

9. jejunum

10. ileum

11. ileocaecal valve

12. caecum

13. colon

14. mesenteries

15. kidneys

16. ureters

17. urinary bladder

18. testes - coagulating glands - prostate - vas deferens

19. ovaries - oviducts - uterine horns - common uterus

1. Be able to define and use the following terms:

a. vena cava

b. atria

c. ventricle

d. tricuspid valve

e. bicuspid (mitral) valve

f. septum

g. chordae tendinae

h. papillary muscles

i. pulmonary & aortic (semi- lunar) valves

j. systemic circulation

k. epi-, myo-, and endocardium

l. systole & diastole

m. foramen ovalis

n. pericardium

o. stroke volume

p. SA node

q. AV node

r. Bundle of His

s. Purkinje network

t. vagus nerve

u. Bainbridge reflex

v. Carotid sinus valves

w. Adrenalin & noradrenalin

x. Angina pectoris

y. Arteriosclerosis

z. Infarct

2. Be able to explain the cardiac cycle. All structures and functions involved, and in the proper sequence.

3. Be able to explain the electrical activity of the heart. Draw a PQRST wave complex and explain it in terms of heart action.

4. Explain the basic chemical molecules that can change the heart rate.

5. Explain the coronary artery system and its part in a heart attack.

-Remember that both sides of the hears operate simultaneously-

-The deoxygenated blood enters the right side of the heart through the SUPERIOR VENA CAVA (draining the head, shoulders, and arms), and the INFERIOR VENA CAVA (draining the legs and abdominal area). The blood enters the right ATRIUM and flows into the right VENTRICLE through the right ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE (AV) known as the TRICUSPID for its three valve CUSPS, or flaps. The ventricle fills with blood (70% of ventricular blood volume) and is prepared for its contraction. The final act before ventricular contraction is the atrial contraction that "tops off" (remaining 30% of ventricular blood volume) the ventricular blood volume.

- The ventricle contracts and the blood rushes backwards towards the atrium. The cusps of the tricuspid valve are pushed shut and are prevented from inverting (turning inside out) by the CHORDAE TENDINAE (tendonous chords) that are attached to PAPILLARY MUSCLES on the wall of the ventricle. The papillary muscles contract with the MYOCARDIUM and the chords are tightened to hold the valve cusps in a closed position. The blood must then exit out the only available passage, the PULMONARY ARTERY. The PULMONARY ARTERY takes the blood to the lungs where the exchange of gases (carbon dioxide & oxygen) will take place in the ALVEOLI, due to gas pressure. When the heart relaxes and the ventricle is refilling, the blood will move backwards from the PULMONARY ARTERY towards the ventricle. This backflow is prevented by the PULMONARY SEMILUNAR VALVE, which operates when its three valve cusps close due to their filling with the returning blood.

- After the exchange of gases has occurred, the blood freshly oxygenated, leaves the lungs via the PULMONARY VEINS and enters the left ATRIUM. The blood flows through the BICUSPID or MITRAL VALVE into the left ventricle. The ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE has two cusps that open downward with the same CHORDAE TENDINAE, PAPILLARY MUSCLES and actions as the tricuspid valve.

- The left ventricular contraction forces the blood to exit through the AORTA by pushing open the AORTIC SEMILUNAR VALVE that closes when the ventricle relaxes to prevent backflow. The blood is then circulated through the SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION to the body, with its oxygen and nutrients, returning to the right atrium to repeat the cardiac cycle.

- The CORONARY ARTERIES service the MYOCARDIUM and fill from the AORTA when the ventricle relaxes. They are the only vessels in the body to fill when the heart is in DIASTOLE.

1. Match the following terms with their definitions:

a. distal

b. caudal

c. frontal

d. thoracic region

e. medial

f. transverse

g. proximal

h. abdominal cavity

i. Tissues

j. lateral

2. What are the definitions for the following structures? Where are they located and what are their functions?

a. serous membranes

b. mucous membranes

c. pleurae

d. peritoneum

e. fascial membranes

f. pericardium

3. What are the the locations and functions of the following anatomical structures?

a. trachea

b. pharynx

c. bronchioles

d. alveoli

e. pleura

4. What are the locations for all of the epithelial cells listed below?

a. Simple or stratified

1. squamous

2. cuboidal

3. columnar

b. Transitional epithelium

c. Psudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

d. Polyhedral cells

5. Be able to answer questions relating to the structure and function of a cell, and the structure and function of connective and muscular tissue.

6. What are the names of the bones in the axial and appendicular skeleton? Be able to identify the bones and their related structures from verbal descriptions of their appearance and location.

7. What is the physiology of muscle contraction, the components of a sarcomere, the anatomy of a neuron and how does the neuromuscular junction operate.

8. What are the molecular events, in chronological order, that occur in the sensory and motor nerves of a reflex arch resulting in a mucle contraction? How does a nerve cause a muscle to contract? What is the mechanism of contraction in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells?

9. Match the anatomical structures of the frog to a list of their functions.

10. Match a list of human superficial muscles to their location, or function.

*11. What are the anatomical structures of the heart? What are their functions? What is a cardiac cycle and how does it apply to blood flow? Relate electrocardiogram traces to the flow of the blood and the electrical acticity of the heart.

* May not be included on the Final Exam