Objectives
Introduction: Describe the feeding habits of pelicans. Explain how recent human activity has impacted pelican populations.The Scope of Biology
1.1 Define the levels of biological organization from molecules to the biosphere, noting the relationship each level has to the others.1.2 Explain how the web of relationships gives an ecosystem its structure.
1.2 Compare the flow of chemical nutrients and the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
1.3 Explain how cells are the structural and functional units of life. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
1.3 Define emergent properties.
Evolution, Unity, and Diversity
1.4 Explain how DNA encodes a cell's information.1.4 Describe seven properties that are common to all life.
1.5 Compare the three domains of life. Distinguish between the three multicellular kingdoms within Eukarya.
1.5 Explain why the old five-kingdom system of classification has been revised. Describe the unresolved problems of this new classification.
1.6 Describe the process and products of natural selection. Explain why individuals cannot evolve.
The Process of Science
1.7 Describe the goals and limits of scientific investigations. Compare discovery science and hypothesis-based science.1.7 Define a hypothesis, and compare inductive and deductive reasoning.
1.8 Explain how deductive reasoning is part of hypothesis-based science.
1.8 Define a control, and describe an example.
Biology and Everyday Life
1.9 Compare the goals of science and technology. Explain why an understanding of biology is essential to all of our lives.
Introduction: Explain how the rattlebox moth uses and transfers defensive substances throughout its life cycle.Elements, Atoms, and Molecules
2.1 Define matter, an element, and a trace element.2.2 Explain how and why iron, iodine, and fluoride are added to the human diet.
2.3 Define a compound and explain how compounds in living organisms are different from compounds in nonbiological materials.
2.4 Describe the structure of an atom.
2.4 Define the atomic number and mass number of an atom.
2.4 Define an isotope and explain what makes some isotopes radioactive.
2.5 Explain why radioactive isotopes are important to biologists.
2.6 Explain how the electron configuration of an atom influences its chemical behavior.
2.7&endash;2.10 Distinguish among nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds, noting their relative strengths and how and where they form.
Water's Life-Supporting Properties
2.11&endash;2.14 Describe the special properties of water that make it vital to living systems. Explain how these properties are related to hydrogen bonding.2.11 Define and distinguish between cohesion and surface tension.
2.12 Define and distinguish between heat and temperature.
2.14 Define a solute, a solvent, and a solution.
2.15 Explain how acids and bases directly or indirectly affect the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
2.15 Explain the basis for the pH scale.
2.15 Explain how buffers work.
2.16 Describe the causes of acid precipitation, and explain how it adversely affects the fitness of the environment.
Chemical Reactions
2.17 Define a chemical reaction, and distinguish between the reactants and products.
Chapter 3:The Molecules of Cells
Introduction: Explain why lactose intolerance is now considered to be the norm. Also explain why lactose tolerance might have evolved in people of European descent.Introduction to Organic Compounds
3.1 Explain why carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, diverse molecules.3.1 Define organic compounds, hydrocarbons, a carbon skeleton, and an isomer.
3.2 Describe the properties of and distinguish among the five functional groups of organic molecules.
3.3 List the four classes of macromolecules, explain the relationship between monomers and polymers, and compare the processes of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates
3.4&endash;3.7 Describe the structures, functions, properties, and types of carbohydrate molecules.Lipids
3.8&endash;3.10 Describe the structures, functions, properties, and types of lipid molecules.3.10 Describe the health risks associated with the use of anabolic steroids.
Proteins
3.11&endash;3.14 Describe the structures, functions, properties, and types of proteins.3.15 Describe the major achievements of Linus Pauling.
Nucleic Acids
3.16 Compare the structures and functions of DNA and RNA.
Chapter 4: A Tour of the CellIntroduction: Explain why art is so important to an understanding of biology.Introduction to the Cell
4.1 Compare the designs of and images produced by a light microscope, a scanning electron microscope, and a transmission electron microscope. Distinguish between magnification and resolving power.4.1 Define cell theory and briefly describe the discoveries that led to its development.
4.2 Explain why there are upper and lower limits to cell size.
4.3&endash;4.4 Distinguish between the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
4.4 Explain why compartmentalization is important in eukaryotic cells.
4.4 Compare the structures of plant and animal cells. Note the function of each cell part.
Organelles of the Endomembrane System
4.5&endash;4.10, 4.12&endash;4.13 Describe the structure and functions of the nucleus, endomembrane system, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulums, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.
4.11 Explain how impaired lysosomal function can cause the symptoms of storage diseases.
Energy-Converting Organelles
4.14&endash;4.15 Compare the structures and functions of chloroplasts and mitochondria.The Cytoskeleton and Related Structures
4.16 Compare the structures and functions of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
4.17 Explain how the structure of cilia and flagella relate to their functions.
Cell Surfaces and Junctions
4.18 Compare the structures and functions of cell surfaces and intercellular junctions of plant and animal cells.
Functional Categories of Organelles
4.19 Describe the four functional categories of eukaryotic organelles, noting which organelles are in each group.4.19 Describe the three fundamental features of all life forms on our planet.
Introduction: Describe how and where fireflies produce light.Energy and the Cell
5.1 Define and compare kinetic energy, potential energy, chemical energy, and heat.5.2 Define the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Explain how these laws of thermodynamics guide energy transformations.
5.3 Define and compare endergonic and exergonic reactions. Explain how cells use cellular respiration and energy coupling to survive.
5.4 Explain how ATP functions as an energy shuttle.
How Enzymes Function
5.5 Explain how enzymes speed up chemical reactions.5.6 Describe the structure of an enzyme-substrate interaction.
5.7 Explain how the cellular environment affects enzyme activity.
5.8 Explain how competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors alter an enzyme's activity.
5.8 Describe the process of feedback inhibition.
5.9 Explain how certain poisons, pesticides, and drugs inhibit enzymes.
Membrane Structure and Function
5.10 Explain how membranes help organize the chemical activities of a cell.5.11 Relate the structure of phospholipid molecules to the structure and properties of cell membranes.
5.12 Describe the fluid mosaic structure of cell membranes.
5.13 Describe the diverse functions of membrane proteins.
5.14 Define diffusion and describe the process of passive transport.
5.15 Explain how transport proteins facilitate diffusion.
5.16 Explain how osmosis can be considered to be the diffusion of water across a membrane.
5.17 Distinguish among hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions.
5.17 Explain how plant and animal cells change when placed into hypertonic or hypotonic solutions.
5.15, 5.18 Compare the processes of facilitated diffusion and active transport.
5.19 Distinguish among exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
5.20 Describe the cause of hypercholesterolemia.
5.21 Describe the central role of chloroplasts and mitochondria in harvesting energy and making it available for cellular work.
Chapter 6: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
Introduction: Compare the structure and functions of slow and fast muscle fibers. Explain why some people seem to be natural sprinters.Introduction to Cellular Respiration
6.1 Compare the processes and locations of cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Explain how you rely on energy from the sun.6.2 Define and compare the processes of breathing and cellular respiration.
6.3 Describe the overall chemical equation for cellular respiration. Compare the efficiency of this process in cells to the efficiency of a gasoline automobile engine.
6.4 Explain how the human body uses its daily supply of ATP.
6.5 Explain how the energy in a glucose molecule is released during cellular respiration.
6.5 Explain how redox reactions are used in cellular respiration.
6.5 Describe the roles of dehydrogenase, NAD1, and the electron transport chain in cellular respiration.
Stages of Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
6.6 List the cellular regions where glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation occur. Note whether substrate-level phosphorylation or chemiosmosis occur at each of these sites.6.7&endash;6.12 Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of the three stages of cellular respiration.
6.11 Explain how rotenone, oligomycin, and uncouplers interrupt critical events in cellular respiration.
6.13 Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of alcohol and lactic acid fermentation. Distinguish between strict anaerobes and facultative anaerobes.
Interconnections Between Molecular Breakdown and Synthesis
6.14 Explain how polysaccharides, fats, and proteins are broken down to yield ATP. Explain why a gram of fat yields more ATP than a gram of starch or protein.6.15 Explain how food molecules are used in biosynthesis.
6.16 Describe the fundamental relationship between respiration and photosynthesis.
Introduction: Explain how plants can be used as a renewable energy source. Explain why this is better than burning fossil fuels.An Overview of Photosynthesis
7.1 Define the terms autotrophs, photoautotrophs, and producers.7.2 Describe the structure of chloroplasts and their location in a leaf. Identify specifically where most light energy is converted to chemical energy.
7.3 Explain how plants produce oxygen. Describe the experiments that revealed the source of the oxygen produced during photosynthesis.
7.4 Describe the role of redox reactions in photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
7.5 Compare the reactants and products of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. Explain how the term photosynthesis relates to these reactions.
The Light Reactions: Converting Solar Energy to Chemical Energy
7.6 Describe the properties and functions of the different photosynthetic pigments.
7.7 Explain how photosystems capture solar energy.
7.8&endash;7.9 Explain how the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis generate ATP, NADPH, and oxygen in the light reactions.
7.9 Compare photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
The Calvin Cycle: Converting CO2 to Sugars
7.10 Describe the reactants and products of the Calvin cycle. Explain why this cycle is dependent upon the light reactions.Photosynthesis Reviewed and Extended
7.11 Review the overall process of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle, noting the products, reactants, and locations of each major step.7.12 Compare the mechanisms that C3, C4, and CAM plants use to obtain carbon dioxide. Note examples of plants that use each of these systems.
Photosynthesis, Solar Radiation, and Earth's Atmosphere
7.13 Describe the greenhouse effect and explain how deforestation and the use of fossil fuels affect this phenomenon.7.14 Explain how the ozone layer forms, how human activities have damaged it, and the consequences of the destruction of the ozone layer.
Chapter 8: The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance
Introduction: Compare sexual and asexual reproduction. Explain how asexual reproduction can be used to save a species from extinction.Connections Between Cell Division and Reproduction
8.1 Compare the relationship between a parent and its offspring resulting from asexual versus sexual reproduction.8.2 Explain why cell division is essential for eukaryotic and prokaryotic life.
8.3 Explain how daughter prokaryotic chromosomes are separated from each other during binary fission.
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis
8.3&endash;8.4 Compare the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes.
8.5 Describe the stages and significance of the cell cycle.
8.6 List the phases of mitosis, and describe the events characteristic of each phase. Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs.
8.7 Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants.
8.8&endash;8.9 Explain how anchorage, cell density, and growth factors control the cell cycle.
8.10 Explain how cancerous cells are different from healthy cells. Distinguish between benign and malignant tumors, and explain the strategies behind some common cancer treatments.
8.11 Describe the functions of mitosis.
Meiosis and Crossing Over
8.12 Explain how chromosomes are paired. Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.8.13 Distinguish between (a) somatic cells and gametes and (b) diploid cells and haploid cells.
8.14 List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II, and describe the events characteristic of each phase. Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams or micrographs.
8.15 Describe key differences between mitosis and meiosis. Explain how the result of meiosis differs from the result of mitosis.
8.16&endash;8.18 Explain how crossing over during prophase I of meiosis, independent orientation of chromosomes at metaphase I, and random fertilization contribute to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.
Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure
8.19 Explain how and why karyotyping is performed.8.20 Describe the causes and symptoms of Down syndrome.
8.21 Define nondisjunction, explain how it can occur, and describe what can result.
8.22 Describe the consequences of abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes.
8.23 Describe the main types of chromosomal changes. Explain why cancer is not usually inherited. and Inheritance #
Introduction: Explain how dog genetics can provide insight into human inheritance.Mendel's Laws
9.1 Describe the pangenesis theory and blending hypothesis. Explain why both ideas are now rejected.9.2 Explain why Mendel's decision to work with peas was a good choice. Define and distinguish among true-breeding organisms, hybrids, the P generation, the F1 generation, and the F2 generation.
9.3 Define and distinguish between the following pairs of terms: genotype versus phenotype, dominant allele versus recessive allele, and heterozygous versus homozygous. Also define a monohybrid cross and a Punnett square.
9.3 Explain how Mendel's law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single characteristic.
9.4 Describe the genetic relationship between homologous chromosomes.
9.5 Explain how Mendel's law of independent assortment applies to a dihybrid cross. Illustrate this law with examples from Labrador retrievers and Mendel's work with peas.
9.6 Explain how a testcross is performed to determine the genotype of an organism.
9.7 Explain how and when the rule of multiplication and the rule of addition should be used to determine the probability of an event. Explain why Mendel was wise to use large sample sizes in his studies.
9.8 Explain how family pedigrees can help determine the inheritance of many human traits.
9.9 Explain how recessive and dominant disorders are inherited. Provide examples of each.
9.10 Compare the health risks, advantages, and disadvantages of the following forms of fetal testing: amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and ultrasound imaging. Describe the ethical dilemmas created by advances in biotechnology.
Variations on Mendel's Laws
9.11&endash;9.15 Describe the inheritance patterns of incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, pleiotropy, and polygenic inheritance.9.16 Explain why human skin coloration is not sufficiently explained by polygenic inheritance.
9.17 Describe the limits, benefits, and ethical challenges of genetic testing.
The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
9.18 Define the chromosome theory of inheritance. Explain the chromosomal basis of the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
9.19 Explain how linked genes are inherited differently from nonlinked genes.
9.20 Describe T. H. Morgan's studies of crossing over.
9.21 Explain how Sturtevant created gene maps.
Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes
9.22 Explain how sex is genetically determined in humans and the significance of the SRY gene. Compare the sex determination system in humans to those in fruit flies, grasshoppers, birds, and bees.
9.23&endash;9.24 Describe the patterns of sex-linked inheritance, noting examples in fruit flies and humans.
Introduction: Explain how DNA evidence was first used to solve two horrible crimes.Bacterial Plasmids and Gene Cloning
12.1 Explain how plasmids are used in gene cloning.12.2 Explain how restriction enzymes are used to "cut and paste" DNA into plasmids.
12.3 Describe the process used to produce many copies of a desired human gene.
12.4 Explain how plasmids and phages can be used to construct genomic libraries.
12.5 Explain how a cDNA library is constructed and how it is different from genomic libraries constructed using plasmids or phages.
12.6 Explain why different organisms are used to mass produce proteins.
12.7 Explain how DNA technology has helped to produce insulin, growth hormone, and vaccines.
Restriction Fragment Analysis and DNA Fingerprinting
12.8 Explain how a nucleic acid probe can be used to identify clones carrying specific genes.
12.9 Explain how DNA microarrays make it easy to determine exactly what genes are active in any particular cell at a certain time.
12.10 Explain how gel electrophoresis is used to sort DNA and proteins.
12.11 Explain how restriction fragment analysis is used to detect differences in DNA sequences.
12.12 Explain how DNA fingerprinting is used to make identifications and answer questions about family relationships.
12.13 Describe the recent efforts and potential of human gene therapy. Discuss the ethical issues that these techniques present.
12.14 Explain how the polymerase chain reaction works. Describe the circumstances where it is best used, and list examples of its application.
Genomics
12.15 Describe the three overlapping stages of the Human Genome Project. Explain why it is important to sequence the genomes of humans and other organisms.12.16 Describe the structure and possible functions of the noncoding sections of the human genome. Note the current estimate of the number of human genes and explain how human complexity can come from such a low number.
12.17 Describe the extent to which the genomes of nonhuman organisms have been mapped. Explain why this work is significant, and describe some of the recent findings from these efforts.
Genetically Modified Organisms
12.18 Explain how genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture.
12.19 Describe the risks posed in the creation and culturing of GM organisms and the safeguards that have been developed to minimize risks.
12.20 Describe the significance of the human genome project and some of its surprising results.
Introduction: Explain how cloning can be used to help protect endangered species. Describe the risks and limits of cloning animals.Gene Regulation
11.1 Describe and compare the regulatory mechanisms of the lac operon, trp operon, and operons using activators.11.2 Explain how selective gene expression yields a variety of cell types in multicellular eukaryotes.
11.3 Describe examples of dedifferentiation followed by redifferentiation in plant and animal cells.
11.4 Explain how DNA is packaged into chromosomes. Explain how packing influences gene expression.
11.5 Explain how the tortoiseshell pattern of a cat is formed.
11.6 Explain how eukaryotic gene expression is controlled, and compare it to gene control in prokaryotes.
11.7 Describe the process and significance of alternative DNA splicing.
11.8 Explain how mRNA breakdown, initiation of translation, protein activation, and protein breakdown can each regulate gene expression.
11.9 Explain how the control of gene expression in eukaryotic cells is analogous to the control of water moving through the series of pipes that carry water from your local water supply to a faucet in your home.
Animal Cloning
11.10 Describe and compare the processes of reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning.11.11 Describe the potential uses of reproductive cloning of nonhuman mammals.
11.12 Compare the sources and properties of embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
The Genetic Control of Embryonic Development
11.13 Describe generally the cascade of events that occur during fruit fly development. In particular, note the role of homeotic genes.
11.14 Describe the roles of cell-to-cell signaling and signal-transduction pathways in development.
11.15 Explain why it appears that the early versions of homeobox genes arose very early in the history of life.
The Genetic Basis of Cancer
11.16 Explain how viruses, proto-oncogenes, and tumor-suppressor genes can each contribute to cancer.
11.17 Explain how mutations in ras or p53 proteins can lead to cancer.
11.18 Describe the main events in the development of colon cancer.
11.19 Describe the recent discoveries associated with the genetic basis of familial breast cancer.
11.20 Describe factors that can increase or decrease your risk of developing cancer.
Gregor Mendel's Discoveries
1. Describe the favored model of heredity in the 19th century prior to Mendel.2. Explain how observations by Mendel and others and Mendel's hypothesis of inheritance differed from the blending theory of inheritance.
3. List several features of Mendel's methods that contributed to his success.
4. Define true breeding, hybridization, monohybrid cross, P generation, F1 generation, and F2 generation.
5. List and explain the four components of Mendel's hypothesis that led him to deduce the law of segregation.
6. Explain how Mendel's law of segregation got its name.
7. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
8. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: dominant and recessive; heterozygous and homozygous; genotype and phenotype.
9. Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.
10. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
11. Define Mendel's law of independent assortment.
12. Use the rule of multiplication to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual will be homozygous recessive or dominant.
13. Given a Mendelian cross, use the rule of addition to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual will be heterozygous.
14. Use the laws of probability to predict from a trihybrid cross between two individuals that are heterozygous for all three traits, what expected proportion of the offspring would be:
a. homozygous for the three dominant traitsb. heterozygous for all three traits
c. homozygous recessive for two specific traits and heterozygous for the third
15. Explain why Mendel was wise to use large sample sizes in his studies.
Extending Mendelian Genetics
16. Give an example of incomplete dominance and explain why it is not evidence for the blending theory of inheritance.17. Explain how the phenotypic expression of the heterozygote is affected by complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and co-dominance.
18. Explain why Tay-Sachs is considered recessive at the organismic level but co-dominant at the molecular level.
19. Explain why genetic dominance does not mean that the dominant allele subdues a recessive allele. Illustrate your explanation with the use of the round versus wrinkled pea seed shape.
20. Explain why dominant alleles do not necessarily mean that the allele is more common in a population. Illustrate your explanation with the character polydactyly.
21. Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB alleles are said to be co-dominant.
22. Define and give examples of pleiotropy and epistasis.
23. Describe a simple model for polygenic inheritance and explain why most polygenic characters are described in quantitative terms.
24. Describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of a character. Explain what is meant by "a norm of reaction."
25. Distinguish between the specific and broad interpretations of the terms "phenotype" and "genotype." Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
26. Explain why studies of human inheritance are not as easily conducted as Mendel's work with his peas.
27. Given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for some of the family members.
28. Explain how a lethal recessive gene can be maintained in a population.
29. Describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and sickle-cell disease.
30. Explain why consanguinity increases the probability of homozygosity in offspring.
31. Explain why lethal dominant genes are much rarer than lethal recessive genes.
32. Give an example of a late-acting lethal dominant in humans and explain how it can escape elimination.
33. Define and give examples of multifactorial disorders in humans. Explain what can currently be done to reduce the frequency of these diseases.
34. Explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing, and newborn screening can be used in genetic screening and counseling.
1. Explain how the observations of cytologists and geneticists provided the basis for the chromosome theory of inheritance.2. Describe the contributions that Walter Sutton, Theodor Boveri, and Thomas Hunt Morgan made to current understanding of chromosomal inheritance.
3. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism.
4. Define and compare linked genes and sex-linked genes. Explain why the inheritance of linked genes is different from independent assortment.
5. Distinguish between parental and recombinant phenotypes.
6. Explain why linked genes do not assort independently.
7. Explain how crossing over can unlink genes.
8. Explain how Sturtevant created linkage maps.
9. Define a map unit.
10. Explain why Mendel did not find linkage between seed color and flower color.
11. Explain how genetic maps are constructed for genes located far apart on a chromosome.
12. Explain the impact of multiple crossovers between loci.
13. Explain what additional information cytological maps provide over linkage maps.
Sex Chromosomes
14. Explain how sex is genetically determined in humans and the significance of the SRY gene.
15. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males.
16. Describe the inheritance patterns and symptoms of color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia.
17. Describe the process of X inactivation in female mammals. Explain how this phenomenon produces the tortoiseshell coloration in cats.
Errors and Exceptions in Chromosomal Inheritance
18.Distinguish among nondisjunction, aneuploidy, trisomy, triploidy, and polyploidy. Explain how these major chromosomal changes occur and describe the consequences.
19. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.
20. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations implicated in the following human disorders: Down syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, extra Y, triple-X syndrome, Turner's syndrome, cri du chat syndrome, and chronic myelogenous leukemia.
21. Define genomic imprinting and provide evidence to support this model.
22. Give some exceptions to the chromosome theory of inheritance. Explain why extranuclear genes are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion and how they can contribute to disease.
DNA as the Genetic Material
1. Explain why researchers originally thought protein was the genetic material.2. Summarize the experiments performed by the following scientists that provided evidence that DNA is the genetic material:
a. Frederick Griffithb. Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeod
c. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
d. Erwin Chargaff
3. Explain how Watson and Crick deduced the structure of DNA and describe the evidence they used. Explain the significance of the research of Rosalind Franklin.
4. Describe the structure of DNA. Explain the "base-pairing rule" and describe its significance.
DNA Replication and Repair
5. Describe the semiconservative model of replication and the significance of the experiments by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl.6. Describe the process of DNA replication. Note the structure of the many origins of replication and replication forks and explain the role of DNA polymerase.
7. Explain what energy source drives the polymerization of DNA.
8. Define "antiparallel" and explain why continuous synthesis of both DNA strands is not possible.
9. Distinguish between the leading strand and the lagging strand.
10. Explain how the lagging strand is synthesized even though DNA polymerase can add nucleotides only to the 3' end.
11. Explain the roles of DNA ligase, primer, primase, helicase, and the single-strand binding protein.
12. Explain why an analogy can be made comparing DNA replication to a locomotive made of DNA polymerase moving along a railroad track of DNA.
Evolution, Unity, and Diversity
13. Explain the roles of DNA polymerase, mismatch repair enzymes, and nuclease in DNA proofreading and repair.14. Describe the structure and functions of telomeres. Explain the significance of telomerase to healthy and cancerous cells.
The Connection between Genes and Proteins
1. Explain why dwarf peas have shorter stems than tall varieties.2. Explain the reasoning that led Archibald Garrod to first suggest that genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes.
3. Describe Beadle and Tatum's experiments with Neurospora and explain the contribution they made to our understanding of how genes control metabolism.
4. Distinguish between the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis and the "one gene-one polypeptide" hypothesis and explain why the original hypothesis was changed.
5. Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
6. Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein.
7. Distinguish between transcription and translation.
8. Compare where transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
9. Define "codon" and explain the relationship between the linear sequence of codons on mRNA and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
10. Explain the early techniques used to identify what amino acids are specified by the triplets UUU, AAA, GGG, and CCC.
11. Explain why polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized.
12. Explain in what way the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.
13. Explain the significance of the reading frame during translation.
14. Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.
The Synthesis and Processing of RNA
15. Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin. Describe the promoter, the terminator, and the transcription unit.16. Explain the general process of transcription, including the three major steps of initiation, elongation, and termination.
17. Explain how RNA is modified after transcription in eukaryotic cells.
18. Define and explain the role of ribozymes.
19. Describe the functional and evolutionary significance of introns.
The Synthesis of Protein
20. Describe the structure and functions of tRNA.21. Describe the structure and functions of ribosomes.
22. Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination) and explain which enzymes, protein factors, and energy sources are needed for each stage.
23. Describe the significance of polyribosomes.
24. Explain what determines the primary structure of a protein and describe how a polypeptide must be modified before it becomes fully functional.
25. Describe what determines whether a ribosome will be free in the cytosol or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
26. Describe two properties of RNA that allow it to perform so many different functions.
27. Compare protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
28. Define "point mutations." Distinguish between base-pair substitutions and base-pair insertions. Give examples of each and note the significance of such changes.
29. Describe several examples of mutagens and explain how they cause mutations.
30. Describe the historical evolution of the concept of a gene.
The Genetics of Viruses
1. Recount the history leading up to the discovery of viruses. Include the contributions of Adolf Mayer, D. Ivanowsky, Martinus Beijerinck, and Wendell Stanley.2. List and describe the structural components of viruses.
3. Explain why viruses are obligate parasites.
4. Distinguish between the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles, using phage T4 and phage lambda as examples.
5. Describe the reproductive cycle of an enveloped virus. Explain how the reproductive cycle of herpes viruses is different.
6. Describe the reproductive cycle of retroviruses.
7. Explain how viral infections in animals cause disease.
8. Define "vaccine" and describe the research of Jenner that led to the development of the smallpox vaccine.
9. Describe the best current medical defenses against viruses. Explain how AZT helps to fight HIV infections.
10. Describe the mechanisms by which new viral diseases emerge.
11. List some viruses that have been implicated in human cancers and explain how tumor viruses transform cells.
12. Distinguish between the horizontal and vertical routes of viral transmission in plants.
13. Describe the structures and replication cycles of viroids and prions.
14. List some characteristics that viruses share with living organisms and explain why viruses do not fit our usual definition of life.
15. Describe the evidence that viruses probably evolved from fragments of cellular nucleic acid.
The Genetics of Bacteria
16. Describe the structure of a bacterial chromosome.17. Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria.
18. Compare the sources of genetic variation in bacteria and humans.
19. Compare the processes of transformation, transduction, and conjugation.
20. Distinguish between plasmids and viruses. Define an episome.
21. Explain how the F plasmid controls conjugation in bacteria.
22. Describe the significance of R plasmids. Explain how the widespread use of antibiotics contributes to R-plasmid-related disease.
23. Define transposon and describe two types of transposition.
24. Distinguish between an insertion sequence and a complex transposon.
25. Describe the role of transposase and DNA polymerase in the process of transposition.
26. Briefly describe two main strategies that cells use to control metabolism.
27. Explain the adaptive advantage of genes grouped into an operon.
28. Using the trp operon as an example, explain the concept of an operon and the function of the operator, repressor, and co-repressor.
29. Distinguish between structural and regulatory genes.
30. Describe how the lac operon functions and explain the role of the inducer, allolactose.
31. Explain how repressible and inducible enzymes differ and how those differences reflect differences in the pathways they control.
32. Distinguish between positive and negative control and give examples of each from the lac operon.
33. Explain how cyclic AMP and the cyclic AMP receptor protein are affected by glucose concentration.
The Structure of Eukaryotic Chromatin
1. Compare the structure and organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes.2. Describe the current model for progressive levels of DNA packing.
3. Explain how histones influence folding in eukaryotic DNA.
4. Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin.
Genome Organization at the DNA Level
5. Describe the structure and functions of the portions of eukaryotic DNA that do not encode protein or RNA.6. Define and distinguish between the three types of satellite DNA.
7. Explain how tandemly repeated nucleotide triplets can lead to human disease.
8. Describe the role of telomeres and centromeres.
9. Describe the structure and proportion of interspersed repetitive DNA.
10. Using the genes for rRNA as an example, explain how multigene families of identical genes can be advantageous for a cell.
11. Using alpha-globin and beta-globin genes as examples, describe how multigene families of nonidentical genes probably evolve; include the role of transposition in your description.
12. Define pseudogenes.
13. Describe the process and significance of gene amplification.
14. Define and explain the significance of transposons and retrotransposons.
15. Explain how genetic recombination during development results in millions of different kinds of antibody molecules.
The Control of Gene Expression
16. Define differentiation and describe at what level gene expression is generally controlled.17. Explain how DNA methylation and histone acetylation affects chromatin structure and the regulation of transcription.
18. Describe the eukaryotic processing of pre-mRNA.
19. Define control elements and explain how they influence transcription.
20. Explain the potential role that promoters, enhancers, activators, and repressors play in transcriptional control.
21. Describe the two basic structural domains of transcription factors.
22. Explain how eukaryotic genes can be coordinately expressed and give some examples of coordinate gene expression in eukaryotes.
23. Describe the process of alternative splicing.
24. Describe factors that influence the lifetime of mRNA in the cytoplasm. Compare the longevity of mRNA in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
25. Explain how gene expression may be controlled at the translational and post-translational level.
The Molecular Biology of Cancer
26. Distinguish between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes. Describe three genetic changes that can convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes.27. Explain how mutations in tumor-suppressor genes can contribute to cancer.
28. Explain how excessive cell division can result from mutations in the ras oncogenes.
29. Explain why a mutation knocking out the p53 gene can lead to excessive cell growth and cancer. Describe three ways that p53 prevents a cell from passing on mutations caused by DNA damage.
30. Describe the set of genetic factors typically associated with the development of cancer.
31. Explain how viruses can cause cancer. Describe several examples.
32. Explain how inherited cancer alleles can lead to a predisposition to certain cancers.
DNA Cloning
1. Explain how advances in recombinant DNA technology have helped scientists study the eukaryotic genome.2. Describe the natural function of restriction enzymes.
3. Explain how the creation of sticky ends by restriction enzymes is useful in producing a recombinant DNA molecule.
4. Outline the procedures for cloning a eukaryotic gene in a bacterial plasmid.
5. Describe the role of an expression vector.
6. Explain how eukaryotic genes are cloned to avoid the problems associated with introns.
7. Describe two advantages of using yeast cells instead of bacteria as hosts for cloning or expressing eukaryotic genes.
8. Describe three techniques to aggressively introduce recombinant DNA into eukaryotic cells.
9. Define and distinguish between genomic libraries using plasmids, phages, and cDNA.
10. Describe the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and explain the advantages and limitations of this procedure.
DNA Analysis and Genomics
11. Explain how gel electrophoresis is used to analyze nucleic acids and proteins and to distinguish between two alleles of a gene.12. Describe the process of nucleic acid hybridization.
13. Describe the Southern blotting procedure and explain how it can be used to detect and analyze instances of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).
14. Explain how RFLP analysis facilitated the process of genomic mapping.
15. List the goals of the Human Genome Project.
16. Explain how linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing each contributed to the genome mapping project.
17. Describe the alternate approach to whole-genome sequencing pursued by J. Craig Venter and the Celera Genomics company. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of public and private efforts.
18. Describe the surprising results of the human genome project.
19. Explain how the vertebrate genome, including that of humans, generates greater diversity than the genomes of invertebrate organisms.
20. Describe what we have learned by comparing the human genome to that of other organisms.
21. Explain the purposes of gene expression studies. Describe the use of DNA microarray assays and explain how they facilitate such studies.
22. Explain how in vitro mutagenesis and RNA interference help to discover the functions of some genes.
23. Define and compare the fields of proteomics and genomics.
24. Explain the significance of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the study of the human genome.
Practical Applications of DNA Technology
25. Describe how DNA technology can have medical applications in such areas as the diagnosis of genetic disease, the development of gene therapy, vaccine production, and the development of pharmaceutical products.26. Explain how DNA technology is used in the forensic sciences.
27. Describe how gene manipulation has practical applications for environmental and agricultural work.
28. Describe how plant genes can be manipulated using the Ti plasmid carried by Agrobacterium as a vector.
29. Explain how DNA technology can be used to improve the nutritional value of crops and to develop plants that can produce pharmaceutical products.
30. Describe the safety and ethical questions related to recombinant DNA studies and the biotechnology industry.
From Single Cell to Multicellular Organism
1. Distinguish between the patterns of morphogenesis in plants and in animals.
2. List the animals used as models for developmental biology research and provide a rationale for their choice.
Differential Gene Expression
3. Describe how genomic equivalence was determined for plants and animals.
4. Describe what kinds of changes occur to the genome during differentiation.
5. Describe the general process by which the ewe Dolly and the first mice were cloned.
6. Describe the two important properties of stem cells. Explain their significance to medicine.
7. Describe the molecular basis of determination.
8. Describe the two sources of information that instruct a cell to express genes at the appropriate time.
Genetic and Cellular Mechanisms of Pattern Formation
9. Describe how Drosophila were used to explain the basic aspects of pattern formation (axis formation and segmentation).
10. Describe how homeotic genes serve to identify parts of the developing organism.
11. Provide evidence of the conservation of homeobox patterns.
12. Describe how the study of nematodes contributed to the general understanding of embryonic formation.
13. Describe how apoptosis functions in normal and abnormal development.
14. Describe how the study of tomatoes has contributed to the understanding of flower development.
15. Describe how the study of Arabidopsis has contributed to the understanding of organ identity in plants.
The Historical Context for Evolutionary Theory
1. State the two major points that Charles Darwin made in The Origin of Species concerning Earth's biota.2. Compare and contrast Plato's philosophy of idealism and Aristotle's scala naturae.
3. Describe Carolus Linnaeus's contribution to Darwin's theory of evolution.
4. Describe Georges Cuvier's contribution to paleontology.
5. Explain how Cuvier and his followers used the concept of catastrophism to oppose the theory of evolution.
6. Explain how the principle of gradualism and Charles Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism influenced Darwin's ideas about evolution.
7. Describe Jean Baptiste Lamarck's model for how adaptations evolve. Explain the challenges to Lamarck's ideas with respect to current understandings of biology.
The Darwinian Revolution
8. Describe how Darwin used his observations from the voyage of the HMS Beagle to formulate and support his theory of evolution.9. Describe how Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace influenced Darwin.
10. Explain what Darwin meant by "descent with modification."
11. Explain what evidence convinced Darwin that species change over time.
12. Describe the three inferences Darwin made from his observations that led him to propose natural selection as a mechanism for evolutionary change.
13. Explain how an essay by the Rev. Thomas Malthus influenced Charles Darwin.
14. Distinguish between artificial selection and natural selection.
15. Explain why the population is the smallest unit that can evolve.
16. Using some contemporary examples, explain how natural selection results in evolutionary change.
Other Evidence of Evolution
17. Describe the research that suggested to David Reznick and John Endler that the life-history traits among guppy populations are correlated with the main type of predator in a stream pool.18. Explain how homologous structures support Darwin's theory of natural selection. Explain how biogeography and the fossil record support the evolutionary deductions based on homologies.
What Is Theoretical about the Darwinian View of Life?
19. Explain the problem with the statement that Darwinism is "just a theory." Distinguish between the scientific and colloquial use of the word "theory."
Population Genetics
1. Explain why it is incorrect to say that individual organisms evolve.2. Explain what is meant by "the modern synthesis."
3. Define a population; define a species.
4. Explain how microevolutionary change can affect a gene pool.
5. State the Hardy-Weinberg theorem.
6. Write the general Hardy-Weinberg equation and use it to calculate allele and genotype frequencies.
7. Explain why the Hardy-Weinberg theorem is important conceptually and historically.
8. List the conditions a population must meet to maintain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
Causes of Microevolution
9. Define microevolution.10. Define evolution at the population level.
11. Explain how genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, nonrandom mating, and natural selection can cause microevolution.
12. Explain the role of population size in genetic drift.
13. Distinguish between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
14. Explain why mutation has little quantitative effect on a large population.
Genetic Variation, the Substrate for Natural Selection
15. Explain how quantitative and discrete characters contribute to variation within a population.16. Define polymorphism and morphs. Describe an example of polymorphism within the human population.
17. Distinguish between gene diversity and nucleotide diversity. Describe examples of each in humans.
18. List some factors that can produce geographic variation among closely related populations. Define a cline.
19. Explain why even though mutation can be a source of genetic variability, it contributes a negligible amount to genetic variation in a population.
20. Describe the cause of nearly all genetic variation in a population.
21. Explain how genetic variation may be preserved in a natural population.
22. Briefly describe the neutral theory of molecular evolution and explain how changes in gene frequency may be nonadaptive.
A Closer Look at Natural Selection as the Mechanism of Adaptive Evolution
23. Distinguish between Darwinian fitness and relative fitness.24. Describe what selection acts on and what factors contribute to the overall fitness of a genotype.
25. Describe examples of how an organism's phenotype may be influenced by the environment.
26. Distinguish among stabilizing selection, directional selection, and diversifying selection.
27. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction.
28. Define sexual dimorphism and explain how it can influence evolutionary change.
29. Distinguish between intrasexual selection and intersexual selection.
30. Describe at least four reasons why natural selection cannot breed perfect organisms.
What Is a Species?
1. Distinguish between anagenesis and cladogenesis.2. Define biological species according to Ernst Mayr.
3. Distinguish between prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms.
4. Describe five prezygotic isolating mechanisms and give an example of each.
5. Explain why many hybrids are sterile.
6. Explain how hybrid breakdown maintains separate species even if gene flow occurs.
7. Describe some limitations of the biological species concept.
8. Define and distinguish among each of the following: ecological species concept, pluralistic species concept, morphological species concept, and genealogical species concept.
Modes of Speciation
9. Distinguish between allopatric and sympatric speciation.10. Explain the allopatric speciation model and describe the role of intraspecific variation and geographic isolation.
11. Define a ring species and describe an example found in salamanders.
12. Describe examples of adaptive radiation in the Gal·pagos and Hawaiian archipelagoes.
13. Explain how reproductive barriers evolve. Describe an example of the evolution of a prezygotic barrier and the evolution of a postzygotic barrier.
14. Define sympatric speciation and explain how polyploidy can cause reproductive isolation.
15. Distinguish between an autopolyploid and an allopolyploid species and describe examples of each.
16. Describe an example of sympatric speciation in fish.
17. List some points of agreement and disagreement between the two schools of thought about the tempo of speciation (gradualism versus punctuated equilibrium).
From Speciation to Macroevolution
18. Explain why speciation is at the boundary between microevolution and macroevolution.19. Define exaptation and illustrate this concept with an example.
20. Explain how the evolution of changes in temporal and spatial developmental dynamics can result in evolutionary novelties. Define evo-devo, allometric growth, heterochrony, and paedomorphosis.
21. Explain why extracting a single evolutionary progression from a fossil record can be misleading.
22. Define and illustrate the concept of species selection. Explain why evolutionary trends are not directional.
The Fossil Record and Geologic Time
1. Distinguish between phylogeny and systematics.2. Describe the process of sedimentation and the formation of fossils. Explain what portions of organisms mostly fossilize and why.
3. Distinguish between relative dating and absolute dating.
4. Explain how isotopes can be used in absolute dating.
5. Explain why the fossil record is incomplete.
6. Describe two dramatic chapters in the history of continental drift. Explain how those movements affected biological evolution.
7. Explain how mass extinctions have occurred and how they affected the evolution of surviving forms.
8. Describe the evidence related to the impact hypothesis associated with the Cretaceous extinctions. Describe the hypothesized consequences of such an impact.
Systematics: Connecting Classification to Phylogeny
9. Distinguish between systematics and taxonomy.10. Explain how species are named and categorized into a hierarchy of groups.
11. List the major taxonomic categories from the most to least inclusive.
12. Define the parts and describe the interrelationships within a cladogram. Explain how a cladogram is constructed.
13. Distinguish between homologous and analogous structures. Explain why the similarity of complex systems implies a more recent common ancestor.
14. Distinguish between shared primitive characters and shared derived characters. Compare the definitions of an ingroup and outgroup.
15. Compare the cladistic and phylocode classification systems.
16. Explain how nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences can be used to help classify organisms. Explain the advantages that molecular methods have over other forms of classification.
17. Explain the principle of parsimony. Explain why any phylogenetic diagram is viewed as a hypothesis.
18. Explain how molecular clocks are used to determine the approximate time of key evolutionary events. Explain how molecular clocks are calibrated in actual time.
19. Explain how scientists determined the approximate time when HIV first infected humans.
20. Describe an example of a conflict between molecular data and other evidence, such as the fossil record. Explain how these differences can be addressed.
Introduction to the History of Life
1. Explain how the histories of Earth and life are inseparable.2. Describe the major events in Earth's history from its origin up to about 2 billion years ago. In particular, note when Earth first formed, when life first evolved, and what forms of life existed up until about 2 billion years ago.
3. Describe the timing and significance of the evolution of photosynthesis.
4. Describe the timing of key events in the evolution of the first eukaryotes and later multicellular eukaryotes. Describe the snowball-Earth hypothesis.
5. Describe the timing of key evolutionary adaptations as life colonized land.
The Origin of Life
6. Contrast the concept of spontaneous generation and the principle of biogenesis. Describe the biogenesis paradox and suggest a solution.7. Describe the four stages of the hypothesis for the origin of life on Earth.
8. Describe the contributions that A. I. Oparin, J. B. S. Haldane, and Stanley Miller made toward developing a model for the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules. Describe the conditions and locations where most of these early organic reactions probably occurred on Earth.
9. Describe the evidence that suggests that RNA was the first genetic material. Explain the significance of the discovery of ribozymes.
10. Describe how natural selection would have worked in an early RNA world.
11. Describe the key properties of protobionts in the evolution of the first cells.
12. Describe the evidence that suggests that life first evolved on the sea floor near deep-sea vents.
The Major Lineages of Life
13. Describe the basis for R. H. Whittaker's five-kingdom system.14. List, distinguish among, and describe examples from each of the five kingdoms.
15. Compare the three-domain system and R. H. Whittaker's five-kingdom system of classification.
The World of Prokaryotes
1. Describe the many unique characteristics of prokaryotes. Explain why it might be said that prokaryotes are the most successful organisms ever to live.2. Describe the impact of prokaryotes on humans and biological ecosystems.
3. Describe the classification of the archaea and the bacteria in the three-domain system.
4. Describe the general size, organization, and specialization of prokaryotic organisms
5. Describe the structure, composition, and functions of prokaryotic cell walls.
6. Distinguish between the structure and staining properties of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Explain why disease-causing gram-negative bacterial species are generally more pathogenic than disease-causing gram-positive bacteria.
7. Describe three mechanisms that motile bacteria use to move. Explain how prokaryotic flagella work and why they are not considered to be homologous to eukaryotic flagella.
8. Explain how the organization of the prokaryotic genome differs from that in eukaryotic cells.
9. List the mechanisms that are sources of genetic variation in prokaryotes and indicate which one is the major source.
10. Describe growth as it applies to prokaryotes. Explain what is meant by geometric growth.
11. Describe the functions of endospores.
12. Describe the natural adaptive advantage of antibiotics.
Nutritional and Metabolic Diversity
13. Distinguish between photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, chemoheterotrophs, saprobes, and parasites. Give examples of each.14. Describe the process and explain the significance of nitrogen fixation.
15. Distinguish among obligate aerobes, facultative anaerobes, and obligate anaerobes.
16. Describe, with supporting evidence, plausible scenarios for the evolution of metabolic diversity, including the
a. nutrition of early prokaryotes
b. origin of electron transport chains
c. origin of photosynthesis
d. origin of aerobic respiration
A Survey of Prokaryotic Diversity
17. Explain how molecular systematics has been used in developing a moneran classification. Explain why clinical phenotypes are a poor guide to phylogeny.18. Describe the distinguishing features and give examples of the methanogens, extreme halophiles, and extreme thermophiles. Explain why these groups are collectively known as extremeophiles.
Ecological Impact of Prokaryotes
19. Describe the role of prokaryotes in recycling within ecosystems.
20. Distinguish among mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Describe examples of prokaryotes in each of these relationships.
21. List Koch's postulates, which are used to substantiate a specific pathogen as the cause of a disease
Structure, Function, and Reproduction of Prokaryotes
22. Distinguish between exotoxins and endotoxins and describe examples of each.23. Describe how Streptomyces can be used commercially.
24. Describe the limitations of antibiotics in combating bacterial diseases.
25. Describe how humans exploit the metabolic diversity of prokaryotes for scientific and commercial purposes.
Introduction to the Protists
1. Explain the historical and current difficulties in classifying members of the kingdom Protista.2. Explain why protistan cells are not analogous to a single cell from a multicellular organism.
3. Describe the different nutritional strategies of protists.
4. Describe the three ecological categories of protists. Explain why the terms "protozoa" and "algae" have little usefulness.
5. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella.
6. Describe the general protistan life cycles and habitats.
The Origin and Early Diversification of Eukaryotes
7. Describe three evolutionary trends that occurred as some prokaryotic groups became increasingly complex.8. Describe the evidence that supports the theory that mitochondria and plastids evolved by serial endosymbiosis. Explain what living organisms are the likely relatives of the prokaryotes that gave rise to mitochondria and plastids.
9. Given the endosymbiosis theory, explain the modern collaboration between the genome of the organelles and nucleus.
10. Explain the diversity of plastids and the phylogenetic discontinuity of photosynthesis among protists.
11. Explain why the evolutionary origin of the eukaryotic cell doesn't easily fit within the traditional model of an evolutionary tree. Describe the reasons for the new weblike phylogeny and the problem of assigning groups to kingdoms and phyla.
A Sample of Protistan Diversity
12. Describe the current hypothesis for the lack of mitochondria in diplomonads and parabasalids.13. Describe the structure, ecology, and human impact of diplomonads, parabasalids, euglenoids, kinetoplastids, dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, ciliates, stramenopiles, heterokont algae, oomycotes, bacillariophytes, chrysophytes, phaeophytes, rhodophytes, and chlorophytes.
14. Describe the similarities and distinct characteristics of the rhizopods, actinopods, and foraminifera.
15. Describe the adaptations of Mycetozoa that facilitate their role as decomposers.
16. Compare the life cycles and ecology of plasmodial and cellular slime molds.