"All things, both argument and ocular demonstration, thus confirm that the blood passes through the lungs and heart by the force of he ventricles, and is driven thence and sent forth to all parts of the body. There it makes its way into the veins and pores of the flesh. It flows by the veins everywhere from the circumference to the centre, from the lesser to the greater veins, and by them is discharged into the vena cava and finally into the right auricle of the heart. The blood is sent in such quantity, in one direction, by the arteries, in the other direction by the veins, as cannot possibly be supplied by the ingested food. It is therefore necessary to conclude that the blood in the animals is impelled in a circle, and is in a state of ceaseless movement; that this is the act or function of the heart, which it performs by means of its pulse; and that is the sole and only end of movement and pulse of the heart."

The preceding paragraph should well be committed to memory as being the foundation on which our conception of the workings of the animal body rests. It is the concluding statement from William Harvey's famous work on the circulation of the blood. It states the basic premises that are now inherent in the physiological study of any aspect of the human body. In the old physiology, the arteries were considered as distributing spirit and higher forms of vital activity, while the veins distributed nourishment and the lower forms of vital activity. The arteries arose from the heart; the veins, it was thought, from the liver.

INDEX

1. Organiztional Levels	6. Special Surfaces
2. Planes of Reference	7. Relationship of Appendages
3. Appendages-Upper	8. Anatomical Orientations
4. Appendages-Lower	9. Body Cavities and Membranes
5. Surface Anatomy	Infrastructure and Geography of the Human Body

A. The Organization Levels of the Human Body

I. CELL-basic unit of life.

-Molecular composition:PROTEINS-CARBOHYDRATES-LIPIDS

-Biochemical interactions:METABOLISM-ANABOLISM-CATABOLISM

-Ultrastructure: anatomy of organelles

-Organelle physiology: how these structures function.

Example:

Mitochondria-ATP production

II. TISSUE-a group of cells arranged together with the same function.

-Epithelial:PARENCHYMA-COVERS AND LINES

-Connective:BLOOD-CARTILAGE-BONE-ADIPOSE

-Muscular:SKELETAL-SMOOTH-CARDIAC

-Nervous:NEURONS-BRAIN-SPINAL CORD

III. ORGAN-an angregate of tissues which exercises one or more general or specific function.

-Heart: circulation of blood.

-Liver: processinq molecules.

-Kidney: filtration of blood.

-Trachea: passageway from the throat to the lungs.

-Intestines: digestion and absorption of molecules.

A. PRIMARY TISSUES-carry out the chief functions of the organ.

-PARENCHYMA-main mass of cells

Example: In bone the OSTEOCYTES; bone producing cells within a collagenous matrix.

B. SECONDARY TISSUE-lend necessary support to primary tissue.

Example: The blood and lymph vessels, and nerves in a bone that support the osteocytes in their function.

PRIMARY TISSUE	ORGAN	SECONDARY TISSUE
Epithelial lining & muscle	Stomach & Intestine	Connective & Nerve
Medullary (nerve) & Cortical (epithelial)	Adrenal Gland	Various Kinds

Return to Index

C. TYPICAL ORGAN-components

1. External Capsule & Internal Framework (Stroma)

-Capsule & stroma are composed of connective tissue.

2. Primary Tissue (Parenchyma)

a. Epithelial-Glands

b. Connective-Bone

c. Neural-Brain

d. Muscle-Skteletal

VISCERA-the soft internal organs of the body, in contrast to bone and skeletal muscle.

-Example: lungs., heart, intestines, liver & spleen

IV. SYSTEM-a group of organs serving a common function.

a. Digestive-catabolism and absorption.

b. Circulatory-movement of the blood

c. Endocrine-glands that produce hormones, enzymes, etc.

d. Respiratory-gas exchange (O₂ & CO₂)

e. Integumentary-skin

f. Nervous-brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

g. Urinary-kidneys, ureters and bladder.

h. Reproductive-uterus, ovaries; testicles, prostate

Return to Index

---

B. PLANES OF REFERENCE, GENERAL REGIONS and ORIENTATION of the parts in the human body

1. A MIDSAGITTAL PLANE is a vertical plane that divides the body into the left and right sides producing BILATERAL SYMMETRY externally. It passes through the sagittal suture of the cranium. A SAGITTAL PLANE or PARASAGITTAL PLANE can be inserted on either side of the body parallel to the sagittal suture on the cranium.

2. A FRONTAL or CORONAL PLANE is a vertical plane that passes through the body at the shoulder and the hip, at a right angle to the sagittal plane, producing VENTRAL(anterior) and DORSAL(posterior).

3. A TRANSVERSE PLANE is a horizontal plane passed through the body at a right angle to the saggittal and frontal that produces SUPERIOR(above) and INFERIOR(below).

4. MAIN AXIS

-3 principal regions

HEAD

NECK

TRUNK

-Attached to the main axis are the EXTREMITIES or APPENDAGES.

I.TRUNK -body minus the head, neck, and extremities

a. THORAX-chest

b. ABDOMEN-front of trunk below thorax; "Stomach"

c. UPPER BACK -between & just below shoulder blades

d. LUMBAR REGION -lower back

e. PECTORAL REGION -front wall of thorax

f. AXILLA -armpit region

g. GLUTEAL REGION- buttocks

h. PUBIC REGION -groin, inguinal area ortriangular area between the thighs; continuous above with abodominal region.

i. PERINEUM -highest region between the thighs; area between anus and scrotom, or anus and vagina

Return to Index

II. APPENDAGES-The upper extremity-portions

a. SHOULDER

b. BRACHIUM -upper arm

-HUMERUS-bone of the upper arm

c. ELBOW and a depression on the front of it, the ANTECUBITAL FOSSA

d. ANTEBRACHIUM -forearm

-RADIUS-the bone on the thumb-side

-ULNA-other bone of forearm

e. WRIST

f. HAND

-PHALANGES-bones of the fingers

Return to Index

III. APPENDAGES-The lower extremity-portions

a. HIP

b. THIGH

-FEMUR-thigh bone

c. KNEE and the depression behind it, the POPLITEAL REGION or FOSSA

d. LEG

-TIBIA-"shin" bone

-FIBULA-bone on lateral surface of leg.

e. ANKLE

f. FOOT

-PHALANGES-bones of the toes

Return to Index

IV. SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY-These are landmarks that can be located either by sight, PALPATION touching and feeling, or both on the trunk or extremities.

a. ACROMION PROCESS point of the shoulder

b. SCAPULA-"shoulder blade"

c. SUPRASTERNAL NOTCH-indentation of STERNUM

d. STERNAL ANGLE-sternum in profile

e. XIPHISTERNAL JUNCTION-union of body and XIPHOID

f. ILIAC CREST -crest of the ILIUM

g. MALLEOLUS -lateral and medial of the ankle

h. TIBIAL CREST -"shin"

i. CLAVICLE-"collarbone"

Return to Index

V. SPECIAL SURFACES OF THE ABDOMEN-nine regions or areas, all important in medicine.

a. EPIGASTRIC-above the umbilical region

b. HYPOCHONDRIAC-left and right THORAX

c. UMBILICAL-area of the navel

d. LUMBAR -left and right abdomen

e. HYPOGASTRIC-below the umbilical region

f. ILIAC -right and left hip area

Return to Index

VI. RELATIONSHIP OF APPENDAGES-terms describing the appendages' relationship to each other and the main axis:

a. PROXIMAL-the region lying towards the main part of the body.

b. DISTAL-the region lying away from the trunk, towards the free end.

c. LATERAL SURFACE-the surface toward the outside of the body referencing the sagittal plane.

d. MEDIAL SURFACE-the surface lying closest to the sagittal plane.

e. PALMAR SURFACE-the hand held with the palm upwards.

f. SUPINE POSITION-lying on the back.

g. PRONE POSITION-lying on the anterior surface.

Return to Index

---

Anatomical Orientations

a. CRANIAL or CEPHALAD-head, or toward the head.

b. CAUDAL-toward the feet.

c. SUPERIOR-above a reference point; in a cranial direction.

d. INFERIOR-below a reference point; in a caudal direction.

e. SUPERFICIAL-close to the external body surface; usually visible or PALPABLE (capable of beincg felt or touched)

f. DEEP-extending beneath the external surface of the body; in contrast to superficial.

C. The Body Cavities and Membranes

 I. THORAX-thoracic cavity

-Two PLEURAL CAVITIES -each contains a lung.

-PERICARDIAL CAVITY -contains the heart)

-MEDIASTINUM-cavity between the lungs.

-Bounded by the STERNUM anteriorly & the VERTEBRAL COLUMN posteriorly.

-Contains the great vessels of the heart, part of the TRACHEA (windpipe), the ESOPHAGUS, THORACIC LYMPH DUCT, THYMUS GLAND, and certain nerves.

-STOMACH, GALLBLADDER, INTESTINES, LIVER, SPLEEN, PANCREAS and KIDNEYS.

-PELVIC CAVlTY-distal to abdominal cavity.

-URINARY BLADDER, COLON, RECTUM, and REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS .

III. MEMBRANES-cover and line

a.SEROUS MEMBRANES

-line internal cavities (produce thin watery fluid) SEROUS FLUID

-consist of a SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM resting on loose connective tissue called a LAMINA PROPRIA (containing LYMPHOCYTES and MACROPHAGES for defense).

-doubly-folded membranes consisting of a PARIETAL PORTION (lines the external wall of the body cavity) and a VISCERAL PORTION (reflects over the exposed surfaces of the visceral organs)

-facilitates freedom of movement of the VISCERAL ORGANS (lubrication).

Return to Index

b. MUCOUS MEMBRANES-line cavities which communicate with the exterior of the body. Respiratory, digestive, excretory, reproductive, auditory and CONJUNCTIVA of the eyes.

-produces a viscous, gummy fluid, however , rear, gastric and intestinal glands produce a serous fluid. Glands of the urinary bladder and passageway produce very little.

-consists of CUBOIDAL or COLUMNAR, SIMPLE, PSEUDOSTRATIFIED or STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM on a lamina propria beneath which is a layer or two of muscle (MUSCULARIS MUCOSA).

-a single-walled membrane, though they may be extensively pleated into folds (RUGAE), or increased Surface area (VILLI), or inpocketing of cellS (SALIVARY GLANDS). It vastly increases the surface area, thus increasing the amount of absorption and secretion.

Return to Index