An Overview of Land Plant Evolution1. Distinguish between the four main groups of land plants.
2. Describe the four great evolutionary episodes in the history of land plants.
3. Describe four shared derived homologies that link charophyceans and land plants.
4. Describe eight characteristics that distinguish land plants from charophycean algae. Explain how these features facilitate life on
5. Define and distinguish between the stages of the alternation of generations reproductive cycle. Compare the life cycle of humans with alternation of generations.
The Origin of Land Plants
6. Describe the evidence for a phylogenetic connection between land plants and green algae.
7. Describe the fossil record of the early land plants 550 to 425 million years ago.
8. Describe a likely hypothesis for the origin of alternation of generations in plants.
9. Explain how adaptations of charophycean algae to shallow water preadapted plants for life on land.
10. Distinguish between the kingdoms Plantae, Streptophyta, and Viridiplantae. Note which of these is used in the textbook.Bryophytes
11. List and distinguish between the three phyla of bryophytes. Briefly describe the members of each group, note their common names, and indicate which phylum represented the earliest plants.
12. Describe the structure of the sporophyte and gametophyte stages of bryophytes. Explain why most bryophytes grow close to the ground.
13. Describe the stemlike and leaflike structures that occur in mosses.
14. Diagram the life cycle of a bryophyte. Label the gametophyte and sporophyte stages and the locations of gamete production, fertilization, and spore production.
15. Describe the ecological and economic benefits of bryophytes.
The Origin of Vascular Plants
16. List and distinguish between the groups of modern vascular plants. Explain how they are different from bryophytes.
17. Describe the adaptations of vascular plants, including modifications of the life cycle and modifications of the sporophyte, that have contributed to their success on land.
Pteridophytes: Seedless Vascular Plants
18. Compare the structure of pteridophytes and lycophytes.
19. Distinguish between homosporous and heterosporous conditions.
20. Explain why seedless vascular plants are most commonly found in damp habitats.
21. Describe the structure and habitats of giant and small lycophytes.
22. Compare the typical structure of ferns, sphenophytes, and psilophytes.
23. Describe the production and dispersal of fern spores.
24. Describe the major life cycle differences between mosses and ferns.
25. Explain how coal is formed and note during which geologic period the most extensive coal beds were produced.
Overview of Seed Plant Evolution1. Describe the three most important reproductive adaptations of seed plants for life on land
Gymnosperms
2. Relate the climate changes of the Mesozoic era to the success of gymnosperms during that time
3. List and distinguish among the four phyla of gymnosperms.
4. Describe the life history of a pine and indicate which structures are part of the gametophyte generation and which are part of the sporophyte generation.
Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)
5. Distinguish between monocots, dicots, and eudicots.
6. Explain the significance of the plant Amborella.
7. Identify the following floral structures and describe a function for each:
a. sepals d. carpels g. stigmab. petals e. filament h. style
c. stamens f. anther i. ovary
8. Define "fruit" and explain how fruits are modified in ways that help disperse seeds.
9. Diagram the generalized life cycle of an angiosperm and the development of the male and female gametophyte.
10. Explain the process and function of double fertilization.
11. Explain how animals may have influenced the evolution of terrestrial plants and vice versa.
Plants and Human Welfare
12. Describe the significance of angiosperms to human agriculture.
13. Describe the importance of plant diversity.
Chapter 31:Fungi
Introduction to the Fungi1. List the characteristics that distinguish fungi from organisms in the other four kingdoms.
2. Explain how fungi acquire their nutrients.
3. Explain how nonmotile fungi seek new food sources and how they disperse.
4. Describe the basic body plan of a fungus.
5. Describe the processes of plasmogamy and karyogamy.
Diversity of Fungi
6. Distinguish among the groups Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. Include a description of the sexual structure that characterizes each group and list some common examples of each.
7. Compare the structures and life cycles of molds, yeasts, lichens, and mycorrhizae.
Ecological Impacts of Fungi
8. Describe the roles of fungi in ecosystems.
9. Explain how fungi can be dangerous and costly to humans.
10. Explain how fungi are commercially important.
Evolution of Fungi
11. Describe the evolutionary relationships between the four fungal groups.
12. Describe the nature of the common ancestor of fungi and animals.
Chapter 32:Introduction to Animal Evolution
What Is an Animal?1. List the characteristics that define animals and distinguish them from other organisms.
2. Explain how and when the first animals likely evolved.
Two Views of Animal Diversity
3. Describe the nature of the scientific evidence that is reshaping our view of the phylogenetic relationships of all forms of life. Explain how this revolution illustrates the scientific process.
4. Outline the major phylogenetic branches of the animal kingdom based on grades of organization; symmetry and embryonic germ layers; the absence or presence of a body cavity; and the protostome-deuterostome dichotomy. Distinguish between radial and bilateral symmetry.
5. Distinguish among the acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and coelomate grades.
6. Distinguish between spiral and radial cleavage; determinant and indeterminate cleavage; and schizocoelous and enterocoelous development.
7. Compare the developmental differences between protostomes and deuterostomes, including
a. patterns of cleavage
b. fates of the blastopore
c. coelom formationa
8. Compare the phylogenetic tree based on grades in body plans with the emerging view of animal phylogeny based mainly on molecular biology.
The Origins of Animal Diversity
9. Describe the evidence that suggests animals may have first evolved about a billion years ago.
10. Describe the nature of the Ediacaran fossils.
11. Explain the significance of the Cambrian explosion. Describe the nature of its fossil organisms.
12. Explain and compare the three main hypotheses for what caused the Cambrian diversification of animals.
Parazoa1. From a diagram, identify the parts of a sponge (including the spongocoel, porocyte, epidermis, choanocyte, mesohyl, amoebocyte, osculum, and spicule) and describe the function of each.
Radiata
2. List the characteristics of the phylum Cnidaria that distinguish it from the other animal phyla.
3. Describe the two basic body plans in Cnidaria and their role in Cnidarian life cycles.
4. List the three classes of Cnidaria and distinguish among them based on life cycle and morphological characteristics.
5. List the characteristics of the phylum Ctenophora that distinguish it from the other animal phyla.
Lophotrochozoa
6. Distinguish between the following pairs: bilateria and urbilateria, acoelomates and coelomates, protostomes and deuterostomes, and Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa.
7. List the characteristics of the phylum Platyhelminthes that distinguish it from the other animal phyla.
8. Distinguish among the four classes of Platyhelminthes and give examples of each.
9. Describe the generalized life cycle of a trematode and give an example of one fluke that parasitizes humans.
10. Describe the anatomy and generalized life cycle of a tapeworm.
11. Describe unique features of rotifers that distinguish them from other pseudocoelomates.
12. Define parthenogenesis and describe alternative forms of rotifer reproduction
13. Define lophophore and list three lophophorate phyla.
14. List the distinguishing characteristics of the phylum Nemertea.
15. Explain the relationship between proboscis worms and flatworms.
16. List the characteristics that distinguish the phylum Mollusca from the other animal phyla.
17. Describe the basic body plan of a mollusk and explain how it has been modified in the Bivalvia, Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, and Polyplacophora.
18. Distinguish among the following four molluscan classes and give examples of each:
a. Bivalvia
b. Cephalopoda
c. Gastropoda
d. Polyplacophora
19. List the characteristics that distinguish the phylum Annelida from the other animal phyla.
20. Distinguish among the classes of Annelida and give examples of each.
21. Describe the adaptive advantage of a coelom and segmentation in annelids.
Ecdysozoa
22. List the characteristics of the phylum Nematoda that distinguish it from other wormlike animals.
23. Give examples of both parasitic and free-living species of nematodes.
24. List the characteristics of arthropods that distinguish them from the other animal phyla.
25. Describe advantages and disadvantages of an exoskeleton.
26. Distinguish between hemocoel and coelom.
27. Define and distinguish between the major independent arthropod lines of evolution represented by:
a. Trilobita
b. Chelicerata
c. Crustacea
d. Uniramia
28. Describe the different views regarding the relationship between arthropods and annelids.
29. Describe the basic mechanism for the development of segmented bodies.
30. Describe three hypotheses that can account for the scattered distribution of segmentation in animals.
Deuterostomia
31. List the characteristics of echinoderms that distinguish them from other animal phyla.
32. Distinguish among the five classes of echinoderms and give examples of each.
33. Explain why the phylum Chordata is included in a chapter on invertebrates.
34. Describe the evolutionary relationships between echinoderms and chordates.
Chapter 34: Vertebrate Evolution and DiversityInvertebrate Chordates and the Origin of Vertebrates
1. Distinguish between the two subgroups of deuterostomes.
2. Describe the four unique characteristics of chordates.
3. Distinguish between the three subphyla of the phylum Chordata and give examples of each.
4. Describe the two-stage hypothesis for the evolution of vertebrates from invertebrates.
Introduction to the Vertebrates
5. Describe the specialized characteristics found in the subphylum Vertebrata and explain how each is beneficial to survival.
6. Define and distinguish between gnathostomes, tetrapods, and amniotes.
Jawless Vertebrates
7. Define and compare the groups Myxini, Cephalaspidomorphi, ostracoderms, conodonts, and placoderms.
8. Distinguish between agnathans and fishes.
Fishes and Amphibians
9. Describe the function and evolution of jaws.
10. Describe and distinguish between the classes Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes, noting the main traits of each group.
11. Identify and describe the main subgroups of the class Osteichthyes.
12. Describe the early evolution of amphibians.
13. Describe the common traits of amphibians and distinguish among the three orders of living amphibians.
Amniotes
14. Describe an amniotic egg and explain its significance in the evolution of reptiles, birds, and mammals.
15. Distinguish between the two systems of classifying amniotes (synapsids, anapsids, and diapsids versus reptiles, birds, and mammals).
16. List the distinguishing characteristics of members of the class Reptilia and explain any special adaptations to the terrestrial environment.
17. Compare the interpretations of dinosaurs as ectotherms or endotherms.
18. Characterize and compare the first and second major reptilian radiations.
19. List and compare the traits of the major groups of modern reptiles.
20. List the distinguishing characteristics of members of the class Aves and explain any special adaptations for flight.
21. Summarize the evidence supporting the fact that birds evolved from reptilian ancestors.
22. List and compare the major groups of modern birds.
23. Describe the main features of mammals.
24. Describe the evolution of mammals.
25. Distinguish among monotreme, marsupial, and placental mammals.
26. Describe the adaptive radiation of mammals during the Cretaceous and early Tertiary periods.
27. Compare and contrast the four main evolutionary clades of eutherian mammals.
Primates and the Evolution of Homo sapiens
28. Describe the general characteristics of primates. Note the particular features associated with an arboreal existence.
29. Distinguish between the two suborders of primates and describe their early evolutionary relationship.
30. Distinguish between hominoid and hominid.
31. Name three of the most prominent misconceptions about human evolution.
32. Describe the evolutionary changes that occurred in the course of human evolution from about 35 million to 5 million years ago.
33. Describe the evolution of the major features of humans.
34. Describe the global dispersion patterns during the evolution of humans.
Introduction to Plant Structure1. Describe several examples of a plant's structural responses to environmental change.
2. Describe the relationships between the evolution of multicellular plants and that of animals.
The Plant Body
3. Describe and compare the three basic organs of plants. Explain how these basic organs are interdependent.
4. List the basic functions of roots. Describe and compare the structures and functions of fibrous roots, taproots, root hairs, and adventitious roots.
5. Describe the basic structure of plant stems.
6. Explain the phenomenon of apical dominance.
7. Describe the structures and functions of four types of modified shoots.
8. Describe and distinguish between the leaves of monocots and eudicots.
9. Describe and distinguish between the three tissue systems of plant organs.
10. Describe and distinguish between the three basic cell types of plant tissues.
The Process of Plant Growth and Development
11. Distinguish between plant growth and plant development.
12. Distinguish between annual, biennial, and perennial plants.
13. Explain how plants are capable of indeterminate growth.
14. Define and distinguish between primary and secondary growth.
15. Describe in detail the primary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots. Describe the specific tissue organization of leaves.
16. Describe in detail the secondary growth of the tissues of shoots and roots.
Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development
17. Explain why Arabidopsis is an excellent model for the study of plant development. Describe the results of recent research on this plant's development.
18. Describe and distinguish between morphogenesis, differentiation, and growth.
19. Explain why (a) the plane and symmetry of cell division, (b) the orientation of cell expansion, and (c) cortical microtubules are important determinants of plant growth and development.
20. Explain how pattern formation is determined in plants.
21. Explain how cellular differentiation is controlled by gene expression.
22. Explain how a cell's location influences its developmental fate.
23. Define phase change and explain its importance to the development of plants.
24. Explain how a vegetative shoot tip changes into a floral meristem.
Chapter 36-Transport in Plants
An Overview of Transport Mechanisms in Plants1. List three levels in which transport occurs in plants.
2. Compare the processes of passive and active transport. Distinguish between the two main categories of transport proteins.
3. Describe the role and importance of proton pumps in transport across plant membranes.
4. Define cotransport and chemiosmosis.
5. Define osmosis and water potential. Explain how water potential is measured.
6. Explain how solutes and pressure affect water potential.
7. Explain how the physical properties of plant cells are changed when the plant is placed into solutions that have higher, lower, or the same solute concentrations. Define flaccid, plasmolyze, turgor pressure, and turgid.
8. Explain how aquaporins affect the rate of water transport across membranes.
9. Describe the three major compartments in vacuolated plant cells, noting their interrelationships.
10. Describe the three routes available for lateral transport in plants.
11. Define bulk flow and describe the different types of forces that generate pressure.
12. Relate the structure of sieve-tube cells, vessel cells, and tracheids to their functions in bulk flow.
Absorption of Water and Minerals by Roots
13. Explain how the structure of root hairs promotes their functions. Explain how mycorrhizae facilitate the functions of roots.
14. Explain how the endodermis functions as a selective barrier between the root cortex and vascular tissue.
Transport of Xylem Sap
15. Describe the potential and limits of root pressure to move xylem sap. Define root pressure, transpiration, and guttation.
16. Explain how transpirational pull moves xylem sap up from the root tips to the leaves.
The Control of Transpiration
17. Describe the role of guard cells in photosynthesis-transpiration.
18. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the extensive inner surface area of a leaf.
19. Explain how the transpiration-to-photosynthesis ratio is calculated and what it indicates about a plant.
20. Explain how transpiration changes the temperatures of leaves and why this is adaptive. Explain how plants with low transpiration rates compensate for higher temperatures.
21. Explain how and when stomata open and close.
22. Explain how xerophytes reduce transpiration.
Translocation of Phloem Sap
23. Define and describe the process of translocation. Trace the path of phloem sap from the primary sugar source to common sugar sinks.
24. Describe the process of sugar loading and unloading.
25. Define pressure flow. Explain the significance of this process in angiosperms.
Nutritional Requirements of Plants1. Describe the chemical composition of plants, including the
a. percent of wet weight as water
b. percent of dry weight as organic substances
c. percent of dry weight as inorganic minerals
2. Explain how hydroponic culture is used to determine which minerals are essential nutrients.
3. Distinguish between macronutrient and micronutrient.
4. Recall the nine macronutrients required by plants and describe their importance in normal plant structure and metabolism.
5. List eight micronutrients required by plants and explain why plants need only minute quantities of these elements.
6. Explain how a nutrient's role and mobility determine the symptoms of a mineral deficiency.
The Role of Soil in Plant Nutrition
7. Explain how soil is formed.
8. Explain what determines the texture of topsoil and list the type of soil particles from coarsest to smallest.
9. Describe the composition of loams and explain why they are the most fertile soils
10. Explain how humus contributes to the texture and composition of soil.
11. Explain why plants cannot extract all of the water in soil.
12. Explain how the presence of clay in soil helps prevent the leaching of mineral cations.
13. Define cation exchange, explain why it is necessary for plant nutrition, and describe how plants can stimulate the process.
14. Explain why soil management is necessary in agricultural systems but not in natural ecosystems such as forests and grasslands. Describe several examples of human mismanagement disasters.
15. List the three mineral elements that are most commonly deficient in farm soils.
16. Explain how soil pH determines the effectiveness of fertilizers and a plant's ability to absorb specific mineral nutrients.
17. Describe problems resulting from farm irrigation in arid regions and list several current approaches to solving these problems.
18. Describe precautions that can reduce wind and water erosion.
19. Explain how phytoremediation can help improve polluted environments.
The Special Case of Nitrogen as a Plant Nutrient
20. Define nitrogen fixation and write the overall equation representing the conversion of gaseous nitrogen to ammonia.
21. Describe the important role of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
22. Recall the forms of nitrogen that plants can absorb and describe how they are used by plants.
23. Explain why it is important to improve the protein yield of crops.
24. Describe the challenges of raising crops enriched with protein.
Nutritional Adaptations: Symbiosis of Plants and Soil Microbes
25. Beginning with free-living rhizobial bacteria, describe the development of a root nodule.
26. Explain why the symbiosis between a legume and its nitrogen-fixing bacteria is considered to be mutualistic.
27. Recall the functions of leghemoglobin and explain why its synthesis is evidence for coevolution.
28. Describe the basis for crop rotation
29. Explain how a legume species recognizes a certain species of Rhizobium. Explain how that encounter leads to the development of a nodule.
30. Define mycorrhizae and explain why they are considered examples of mutualism. Explain how mycorrhizae enhance plant nutrition.
31. Explain the significance of mycorrhizae in the evolution of terrestrial plants.
32. Compare the structure and properties of ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae.
33. Describe the agricultural importance of mycorrhizae.
34. Discuss the relationships between root nodule formation and mycorrhizae development.
Nutritional Adaptations: Parasitism and Predation by Plants
35. Describe the modifications for nutrition that have evolved among plants, including parasitic plants, carnivorous plants, and mycorrhizae.
Sexual Plant Reproduction1. Outline the angiosperm life cycle.
2. List the four floral parts in their order from outside to inside the flower.
3. From a diagram of an idealized flower, correctly label the following structures and describe their function:
a. sepals
b. petals
c. stamen (filament and anther)
d. carpel (style, ovary, ovule, and stigma)
4. Describe the sequence of events that lead from pollination to fruit formation and finally germination.
5. Distinguish between (a) complete and incomplete flowers, (b) bisexual and unisexual flowers, and (c) monoecious and dioecious plant species.
6. Explain by which generation, structure, and process spores are produced.
7. Explain by which generation, structures, and processes gametes are produced.
8. Describe the development of an embryo sac and explain what happens to each of its cells.
9. Explain how pollen can be transferred between flowers.
10. Distinguish between pollination and fertilization.
11. Describe mechanisms that prevent self-pollination and explain how this contributes to genetic variation.
12. Outline the process of double fertilization and describe the function of endosperm.
13. Explain the adaptive advantage of double fertilization in angiosperms.
14. Explain how fertilization in animals is similar to that in plants.
15. Describe the fate of the ovule and ovary after double fertilization. Note where major nutrients are stored as the embryo develops.
16. Describe the development and functions of the endosperm. Distinguish between liquid endosperm and solid endosperm.
17. Describe the development of a plant embryo from the first mitotic division to the embryonic plant with rudimentary organs.
18. From a diagram, identify the following structures of a seed and recall a function for each:
a. seed coat d. radicle g. endospermb. embryo e. epicotyl h. cotyledons
c. hypocotyl f. plumule i. shoot apex
19. Explain how a monocot and dicot seed differ.
20. Explain how fruit forms and ripens. List the functions of fruit
21. Explain how selective breeding by humans has changed fruits.
22. Explain how seed dormancy can be advantageous to a plant and describe some conditions for breaking dormancy.
23. Describe variations in the process of germination, including the fate of the radicle, shoot tip, hypocotyl, epicotyl, and cotyledons.
Asexual Plant Reproduction
24. Distinguish between sexual reproduction and vegetative reproduction.
25. Describe the natural mechanisms of vegetative reproduction in plants, including fragmentation and apomixis.
26. Explain the advantages of using both sexual and asexual reproduction.
27. Describe various methods that horticulturists use to vegetatively propagate plants from cuttings.
28. Explain how the technique of plant tissue culture can be used to clone and genetically engineer plants.
29. Describe the process of protoplast fusion and its potential agricultural impact.
Plant Biotechnology
30. Compare traditional plant-breeding techniques and genetic engineering, noting similarities and differences.
31. Explain why maize can be considered an unnatural monster.
32. Explain the need for increased crop yields within the next 20 years.
33. Describe current examples of the advantages of transgenic crops.
34. Describe some of the biological arguments for and against genetically modified crops.
Signal Transduction and Plant Responses1. Compare the growth of a plant in darkness to the characteristics of greening.
2. Describe the signal pathways associated with greening.
3. Describe the role of second messengers in the process of greening.
4. Describe the two main mechanisms by which a signaling pathway can activate an enzyme.
Plant Responses to Hormones
5. For each of the following scientists, describe their hypothesis, experiments, and conclusions about the mechanism of phototropism:
a. Charles Darwin
b. Francis Darwin
c. Peter Boysen-Jensen
d. F.W. Went
6. List six classes of plant hormones, describe their major functions, and note where they are produced in the plant.
7. Explain how a hormone may cause its effect on plant growth and development.
8. Describe a possible mechanism for the polar transport of auxin.
9. According to the acid-growth hypothesis, explain how auxin can initiate cell elongation.
10. Explain why 2,4-D is widely used as a weed killer.
11. Explain how the ratio of cytokinin to auxin affects cell division and cell differentiation.
12. Describe the evidence that suggests that life first evolved on the sea floor near deep-sea vents.
13. List several factors besides auxin from the terminal bud that may control apical dominance.
14. Describe how stem elongation and fruit growth depend on a synergism between auxin and gibberellins.
15. Explain the probable mechanism by which gibberellins trigger seed germination.
16. Describe how abscisic acid (ABA) helps prepare a plant for winter.
17. Describe the effects of ABA on seed dormancy and drought stress.
18. Describe the role of ethylene in the triple response to mechanical stress, apoptosis, leaf abscission, and fruit ripening.
19. Describe the functions of brassinosteroids in plants.
Plant Responses to Light
20. Define photomorphogenesis and note which colors are most important to this process.
21. Compare the roles of blue-light photoreceptors and phytochromes.
22. Define circadian rhythm and explain what happens when an organism is artificially maintained in a constant environment.
23. List some common factors that entrain biological clocks.
24. Define photoperiodism.
25. Distinguish between short-day, long-day, and day-neutral plants. Explain why these names are misleading.
26. Explain how flowering might be controlled and what is necessary for flowering to occur.
Plant Responses to Environmental Stimuli Other than Light
27. Describe how plants apparently tell up from down. Explain why roots display positive gravitropism and shoots exhibit negative gravitropism.
28. Distinguish between thigmotropism and thigmomorphogenesis.
29. Describe how motor organs can cause rapid leaf movements and sleep movements.
30. Provide a plausible explanation for how a stimulus that causes rapid leaf movement can be transmitted through the plant.
31. Describe the challenges posed by, and the responses of plants to, the following environmental stresses: drought, flooding, salt stress, heat stress, and cold stress.
Plant Defense: Responses to Herbivores and Pathogens
32. Explain how plants deter herbivores with physical and chemical defenses.
33. Describe the multiple ways that plants defend against pathogens.
Functional Animal Anatomy: An Overview1. Distinguish between long-term adaptations and short-term physiological responses and list examples of each.
2. Define bioenergetics.
3. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology. Explain how functional anatomy relates to these terms.
4. Define a tissue.
5. From micrographs or diagrams, correctly identify the following animal tissues, explain how their structure relates to their functions, and note examples of each.
a. Epithelial tissuei. Cuboidalii. Columnar
iii. Squamous
b. Connective tissue
i. Adiposeii. Cartilage
iii. Bone
c. Muscle
i. Skeletal (striated)ii. Cardiac
iii. Visceral (smooth)
d. Nervous
Body Plans and the External Environment
7. Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.
8. Explain how the size and shape of an animal's body affect its interactions with the environment.
Regulating the Internal Environment
9. Define homeostasis. Describe the three functional components of a homeostatic control system.
10. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms.
Introduction to the Bioenergetics of Animals
11. Describe the basic sources of chemical energy and their fate in animal cells.
12. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.
13. Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic organisms.
14. Describe the relationship between metabolic rate and body size.
15. Distinguish between basal metabolic rate and standard metabolic rate. Describe the major factors that influence energy requirements.
16. Describe the natural variations found in the energy strategies of endotherms and ectotherms.
Nutritional Requirements of Animals1. Compare the bioenergetics of animals when energy balance is positive and when it is negative.
2. Define essential nutrients and describe the four classes of essential nutrients.
Food Types and Feeding Mechanisms
3. Compare the dietary habits of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
4. Compare the following types of feeders and note examples of each: suspension feeders, substrate feeders, deposit feeders, fluid feeders, and bulk feeders.
Overview of Food Processing
5. Define and compare the four main stages of food processing.
6. Compare intracellular and extracellular digestion.
The Mammalian Digestive System
7. Describe the common processes and structural components of the mammalian digestive system.
8. Compare the digestive processes of the major types of macromolecules.
9. Explain how hormones influence the digestive process.
10. Describe the major functions of the large intestine.
Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems
11. Relate variations in dentition and lengths of the digestive system to the feeding strategies and diets of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
Circulation in Animals1. Describe the need for circulatory and respiratory systems due to increasing animal body size.
2. Explain how a gastrovascular cavity functions in part as a circulatory system.
3. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. List the three basic components common to both systems.
4. List the structural components of a vertebrate circulatory system and relate their structure to their functions.
5. Describe the general relationship between metabolic rates and the structure of the vertebrate circulatory system.
6. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the functions of each.
7. Explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit.
8. Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory schemes of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
9. Define a cardiac cycle, distinguish between systole and diastole, and explain what causes the first and second heart sounds.
10. Define cardiac output and describe two factors that influence it.
11. List the four heart valves, describe their location, and explain their functions.
12. Define heart murmur and explain its cause.
13. Define pacemaker and describe the location of two patches of nodal tissue in the human heart.
14. Describe the origin and pathway of the action potential (cardiac impulse) in the normal human heart.
15. Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, changes in temperature, physical conditioning, and exercise.
16. Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their functions.
17. Explain why blood flow through capillaries is substantially slower than it is through arteries and veins.
18. Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured.
19. Explain how peripheral resistance and cardiac output affect blood pressure.
20. Explain how blood returns to the heart even though it must sometimes travel from the lower extremities against gravity.
21. Explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated.
22. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across capillaries.
23. Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system.
24. Describe the composition and functions of plasma.
25. Relate the structure of erythrocytes to their functions.
26. List the five main types of white blood cells and generally characterize their functions..
27. Relate the structure of platelets to their functions.
28. Outline the formation of erythrocytes from stem cells to their destruction by phagocytic cells.
29. Outline the sequence of events that occur during blood clotting and explain what prevents spontaneous clotting in the absence of injury.
30. Distinguish between a heart attack and a stroke; atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis; and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
31. List the factors that have been correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
Gas Exchange in Animals
32. Define gas exchange and distinguish between a respiratory medium and a respiratory surface.
33. Describe the general requirements for a respiratory surface and list the variety of respiratory organs that have adapted to meet them.
34. Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals.
35. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of water as a respiratory medium.
36. Describe countercurrent exchange and explain why it is more efficient than the concurrent flow of water and blood.
37. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium and explain how insect tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment.
38. In the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures that air must pass through on its journey.
39. Compare positive and negative pressure breathing. Explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs.
40. Distinguish between tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume.
41. Explain how the respiratory system of birds is different from that in mammals.
42. Explain how breathing is controlled.
43. Define partial pressure and explain how it influences diffusion across respiratory surfaces.
44. Describe the adaptive advantage of respiratory pigments in circulatory systems. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin.
45. Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape, and explain how the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with oxygen concentration.
46. Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs.
47. Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals and the role of myoglobin.
Nonspecific Defenses against Infection1. Explain what is meant by nonspecific defense and list the nonspecific lines of defense in the vertebrate body.
2. Explain how the physical barrier of skin is reinforced by chemical defenses.
3. Define phagocytosis and list two types of phagocytic cells derived from white blood cells.
4. Explain how the function of natural killer cells differs from the function of phagocytes.
5. Describe the inflammation response, including how it is triggered.
6. Describe the factors that influence phagocytosis during the inflammation response.
7. Describe the typical sequence of cellular responses to a point of infection.
8. Describe the function of pyrogens.
9. Explain what occurs during the condition known as septic shock.
10. List and describe the roles of antimicrobial proteins.
How Specific Immunity Arises
11. Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.
12. Explain how B cells and T cells recognize specific antigens.
13. Explain how the particular structure of a lymphocyte's receptor is determined.
14. Describe the mechanism of clonal selection. Distinguish between effector cells and memory cells.
15. Distinguish between the primary and secondary immune responses.
16. Describe the cellular basis for immunological memory.
17. Outline the development of B and T lymphocytes.
18. Describe the cellular basis for self-tolerance.
19. Describe the variation found in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes and their role in the rejection of tissue transplants. Explain the adaptive advantage of this variation.
20. Compare the structures and functions of cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells.
21. Compare the production and functions of class I MHC and class II MHC molecules.
Immune Responses
22. Distinguish between humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity.
23. Describe the roles of helper T lymphocytes in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
24. Describe the functions of CD4, cytokines, interleukin-2, and interleukin-1.
25. Explain how class I MHC molecules expose foreign proteins that are synthesized in infected or abnormal cells.
26. Describe the functions of the proteins CD8 and perforin.
27. Explain how cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells defend against tumors.
28. Distinguish between T-dependent antigens and T-independent antigens.
29. Explain why macrophages are regarded as the main antigen-presenting cells in the primary response but memory B cells are the main antigen-presenting cells in the secondary response.
30. Explain how antibodies interact with antigens.
31. Diagram and label the structure of an antibody and explain how this structure allows antibodies to (a) recognize and bind to antigens and (b) assist in the destruction and elimination of antigens.
32. Distinguish between the variable (V) regions and constant (C) regions of an antibody molecule.
33. Describe the production and uses of monoclonal antibodies.
34. Compare the processes of neutralization, opsonization, agglutination, and complement fixation.
35. Distinguish between the classical and alternative pathways of lysis by complement.
36. Describe the process of immune adherence.
37. Describe evidence that reveals the ability of sponges and sea stars to distinguish between self and nonself. Describe other similarities and differences between invertebrate and vertebrate immune systems.
Immunity in Health and Disease
38. Distinguish between active and passive immunity and describe examples of each.
39. For ABO blood groups, list all possible combinations for donor and recipient in blood transfusions, indicate which combinations would cause an immune response in the recipient, and state which blood type is the universal donor.
40. Explain how the immune response to Rh factor differs from the response to A and B blood antigens.
41. Describe the potential problem of Rh incompatibility between a mother and her unborn fetus and explain what precautionary measures may be taken.
42. Explain what is done medically to reduce the risk of tissue transplant rejection due to differences in the MHC. Explain what is unique about using bone marrow transplants to reduce the risk of immune rejection.
43. Describe an allergic reaction, including the roles of IgE, mast cells, and histamine.
44. Explain what causes anaphylactic shock and how it can be treated.
45. List some known autoimmune disorders and describe possible mechanisms of autoimmunity.
46. Distinguish between inborn and acquired immune dysfunction.
47. Explain how general health and mental well-being might affect the immune system.
48. Describe the infectious agent that causes AIDS and explain how it enters a susceptible cell.
49. Describe the early immune system response to HIV infection. Explain how this reaction is used to detect infected individuals.
50. Describe the progress of an HIV infection prior to the onset of AIDS. Describe the medical treatment of HIV infection and the likely prognosis for an infected individual.
51. Explain how HIV is transmitted and describe its distribution throughout the world. Note strategies that can reduce a person's risk of infection.
An Overview of Homeostasis1. Distinguish between regulators and conformers.
2. Describe the special circumstances during which an animal's inputs of energy and materials exceed its outputs.
3. Compare the fractions of energy and materials used for reproduction by humans and mice.
4. Explain how homeostasis can be viewed as a set of budgets. Provide an example.
Regulation of Body Temperature
5. Describe the impact of rising temperatures on the physiology of an animal. Explain the Q10 effect.
6. Describe the adaptive advantages of thermoregulation.
7. Describe and compare the processes of conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation. Explain the significance of these processes.
8. Compare the physiologies of ectotherms and endotherms, noting the advantages and disadvantages of each. Explain why the terms "cold-blooded" and "warm-blooded" can be misleading.
9. Describe the four main categories of adaptations that help animals thermoregulate. Distinguish between vasodilation and vasoconstriction.
10. Describe the thermoregulatory adaptations characteristic of animals in each of the following groups: mammals and birds; amphibians and reptiles; fishes; and invertebrates.
11. Describe the role of the hypothalamus in thermoregulation.
12. Compare the processes of acclimatization in endotherms and ectotherms.
13. Describe the specific functions of cryoprotectants and heat-shock proteins.
14. Describe the environmental conditions that induce torpor (hibernation). Note the physiological changes associated with torpor and their adaptive advantages to animals that undergo this phenomenon.
15. Describe the processes of estivation (summer torpor) and daily torpor, noting the associated physiological changes and their adaptive advantages to animals that undergo these phenomena.
Water Balance and Waste Disposal
16. Describe the ultimate function of osmoregulation. Explain how hemolymph and interstitial fluids are involved in this process.
17. Explain how transport epithelia promote osmoregulation.
18. Describe the production and elimination of ammonia. Explain the need for its elimination.
19. Compare the amounts of nitrogenous waste produced by endotherms and ectotherms, and those produced by predators and herbivores.
20. Explain how an animal's nitrogenous wastes are correlated with its phylogeny and habitat.
21. Compare the strategies to eliminate waste as ammonia, urea, or uric acid. Note which animal groups are associated with each process and why a particular strategy is most adaptive for a particular group.
22. Define osmolarity and distinguish between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.
23. Compare the strategies of osmoconformers and osmoregulators. Distinguish between stenohaline and euryhaline animals.
24. Discuss the problems that marine, freshwater, and terrestrial organisms face in maintaining homeostasis and explain what osmoregulatory adaptations serve as solutions to these problems.
Excretory Systems
25. Describe the key aspects of the two-step process of urine production.
26. Describe how a flame-bulb (protonephridial) excretory system functions.
27. Explain how the metanephridial excretory tubule of annelids functions. Compare the structure to the protonephridial system.
28. Describe the Malpighian tubule excretory system of insects.
29. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each structure in the mammalian excretory system.
30. Using a diagram, identify and describe the function of each part of the nephron.
31. Describe and show the relationships among the processes of filtration, secretion, and reabsorption.
32. Explain how the loop of Henle enhances water conservation by the kidney.
33. Describe the countercurrent mechanisms of the loop of Henle.
34. Explain how the juxtamedullary nephron can be regarded as one of the clearest examples of a structure-function relationship.
35. Describe the mechanisms involved in the regulation of the kidney.
36. Explain how the feeding habits of the South American vampire bat illustrate the versatility of the mammalian kidney.
37. Describe the structural and physiological adaptations in the kidneys of nonmammalian species that allow them those species to osmoregulate in different environments.
38. Explain the significance of the liver in maintaining homeostasis.
An Introduction to Regulatory Systems1. Compare the response times of the two major systems of internal communication: the nervous system and the endocrine system.
2. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
3. Explain how neurosecretory cells, epinephrine, and the release of milk by a nursing mother illustrate the integration of the endocrine and nervous systems.
4. Describe several examples of the essential roles of hormones in the maintenance of homeostasis within invertebrate animals.
Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action
5. Distinguish between the functions of local regulators and pheromones.
6. Describe the diverse functions of growth factors, nitric oxide, and prostaglandins.
7. Define a signal-transduction pathway, noting the mechanism and main components of action. Give several examples of its function.
8. Describe the nature and locations of intracellular receptors for hormones that pass easily through cell membranes. Explain how their passage compares to the signal-transduction pathway noted just above.
9. Describe several examples of different physiological reactions in animals exposed to the same hormone.
The Vertebrate Endocrine System
10. Explain how the hypothalamus and pituitary glands interact and how they coordinate the endocrine system.
11. Describe the location of the pituitary. List and explain in detail the functions of the hormones released from the anterior and posterior lobes.
12. Describe the location of the pineal gland. Explain the significance of its secretion melatonin.
13. List the hormones of the thyroid gland and explain their roles in development and metabolism. Explain the causes and symptoms of hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and goiter.
14. Note the location of the parathyroid glands and describe the hormonal control of calcium homeostasis.
15. Distinguish between alpha and beta cells in the pancreas and explain how their antagonistic hormones (insulin and glucagon) regulate carbohydrate metabolism.
16. Distinguish between type I diabetes mellitus and type II diabetes mellitus.
17. Describe the development of the adrenal medulla. List the hormones of the adrenal medulla, describe their functions, and explain how their secretions are controlled.
18. List the hormones of the adrenal cortex, describe their functions, and explain how their secretions are controlled.
19. List the hormones of three categories of steroid hormones produced by the gonads. Describe variations in their production between the sexes. Note the functions of each category of steroid and explain how secretions are controlled.
Overview of Animal Reproduction1. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction.
2. List and describe four forms of asexual reproduction.
3. Describe the adaptive advantages of asexual reproduction and the conditions that favor its occurrence.
4. Explain the advantages of periodic reproduction. Describe factors that control the timing of reproductive events.
5. Describe an example of an animal life cycle that alternates between asexual and sexual reproduction.
6. Define parthenogenesis and describe the conditions that favor its occurrence. Note examples of invertebrate and vertebrate species that use this form of reproduction.
7. Explain how hermaphroditism is advantageous in sessile or burrowing animals that might have difficulty encountering a member of the opposite sex.
8. Distinguish between protogynous and protandrous sequential hermaphroditism. Note the adaptive advantages of these reproductive systems.
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
9. Describe three mechanisms that increase the probability that mature sperm will encounter fertile eggs of the same species in organisms that use external fertilization.
10. Compare reproductive systems using internal and external fertilization on the basis of the relative number of zygotes, protection of the embryos, and parental care.
11. List and describe various methods of egg and embryo protection.
12. Compare the reproductive systems of a polychaete worm, an insect, a common nonmammalian vertebrate, and a mammal.
Mammalian Reproduction
13. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each component of the reproductive system of the human male.
14. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each component of the reproductive system of the human female.
15. Describe the two physiological reactions common to sexual arousal in both sexes.
16. Describe the four phases of the sexual response cycle.
17. Describe spermatogenesis and the structure and function of mature sperm.
18. Describe oogenesis.
19. Describe three major differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
20. Describe the influence of androgens on primary and secondary sex characteristics and behavior.
21. Compare the patterns of hormone secretion and reproductive events in male and female mammals.
22. Compare menstrual cycles and estrous cycles.
23. Describe the stages of the human menstrual cycle.
24. Explain how the menstrual cycle and ovarian cycle are synchronized in female mammals. Note in detail the functions of the particular hormones involved.
25. Describe the main features of menopause.
26. Define conception and gestation.
27. Compare the length of pregnancies in humans, rodents, dogs, cows, giraffes, and elephants. Explain the correlation between the duration of a pregnancy, the body size of the mother, and the extent of development of the young at birth.
28. Describe the changes that occur in the mother and the developing embryo during each trimester of a human pregnancy.
29. Describe the stages of parturition.
30. Describe the control of lactation.
31. Describe mechanisms that may help prevent the mother's immune system from rejecting the developing embryo.
32. List the various methods of contraception and explain how each works.
33. Describe techniques that allow us to learn about the health and genetics of a fetus.
34. Explain how and when in vitro fertilization is used.
The Stages of Embryonic Development in Animals1. Compare the concepts of preformation and epigenesis.
2. List the two functions of fertilization.
3. Describe the acrosomal reaction and explain how it ensures that gametes are conspecific.
4. Describe the cortical reaction.
5. Explain how the acrosomal and cortical reactions function sequentially to prevent polyspermy.
6. Describe the changes that occur in an activated egg and explain the importance of cytoplasmic materials to egg activation.
7. Compare fertilization in a sea urchin and a mammal.
8. Describe the general process of cleavage. Explain how the distribution and abundance of yolk influence this process.
9. Explain the importance of embryo polarity during cleavage. Compare the characteristics of the animal hemisphere, vegetal hemisphere, and gray crescent in amphibian embryos.
10. Describe the formation of a morula and blastula in sea urchin, amphibian, and insect embryos. Distinguish between meroblastic cleavage and holoblastic cleavage.
11. Describe the process of gastrulation and explain its importance. Explain how this process rearranges the embryo. List adult structures derived from each of the primary tissue layers.
12. Compare gastrulation in a sea urchin and a frog.
13. Describe the formation of the notochord, neural tube, and somites in a frog.
14. Describe the significance and fate of neural crest cells.
15. List and explain the functions of the extraembryonic membranes in bird and reptile eggs.
16. Compare and contrast embryonic development in birds and mammals.
The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Morphogenesis and Differentiation in Animals
17. Describe the role of changes in cell shape and cell position during embryonic development. Explain how these cellular processes occur. Describe the process of convergent extension
18. Describe the role of the extracellular matrix in embryonic development.
19. Describe the locations and functions of cell adhesion molecules.
20. Describe the two general principles that integrate our knowledge of the genetic and cellular mechanisms underlying differentiation.
21. Describe the process of fate mapping and the significance of fate maps.
22. Describe the two important conclusions that have resulted from the experimental manipulation of parts of embryos and the use of fate maps.
23. Explain the relationships between polarity, cytoplasmic determinants, and embryonic development.
24. Explain the process of induction and its significance in embryonic development. Explain the significance of the dorsal lip of the blastopore in the early amphibian gastrula.
25. Describe the molecular interactions associated with induction events.
26. Explain how pattern formation occurs in a developing chick limb. Explain the roles of the apical ectodermal ridge and the zone of polarizing activity.
27. Explain how a limb bud is directed to develop into either a forelimb or hind limb.
An Overview of Nervous Systems1. Compare the two coordinating systems in animals.
2. Describe the three major functions of the nervous system.
3. List and describe the major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each.
4. Define a reflex and describe the pathway of a simple reflex arc.
5. Compare the location of the cell bodies of motor neurons, interneurons, and sensory neurons. Distinguish between ganglia and nuclei.
6. Diagram and describe the three major patterns of neural circuits.
7. Describe the function and location of each type of supporting cell.
The Nature of Nerve Signals
8. Define a membrane potential and a resting potential.
9. Explain why physiologists often study the nervous systems of invertebrates.
10. Describe the factors that contribute to a membrane potential.
11. Explain why the membrane potential of a resting neuron is typically about -70 mV.
12. Explain the role of the sodium-potassium pump.
13. Distinguish between gated and ungated ion channels and between chemically gated ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels.
14. Define a graded potential and explain how it is different from a resting potential or an action potential.
15. Describe the characteristics of an action potential. Explain the role of voltage-gated ion channels in this process.
16. Describe the two main factors that underlie the repolarizing phase of the action potential.
17. Define the refractory period.
18. Explain how the nervous system distinguishes between stronger and weaker stimuli.
19. Explain how an action potential is propagated along an axon.
20. Describe the factors that affect the speed of action potentials along an axon and describe adaptations that increase the speed of propagation.
21. Compare an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.
22. Describe the structures of a chemical synapse and explain how they transmit an action potential from one cell to another.
23. Explain why an action potential can be transmitted in only a single direction over a neural pathway.
24. Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP) affect the postsynaptic membrane potential.
25. Define summation and distinguish between the two types. Explain how summation applies to EPSPs and IPSPs.
26. Explain the role of the axon hillock.
27. Describe the types and properties of the major neurotransmitters.
28. Describe the specific properties of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine and biogenic amines.
29. Identify and describe the functions of the four amino acids and several neuropeptides that work as neurotransmitters.
30. Describe the effects of endorphins, nitric oxide, and carbon monoxide.
The Evolution and Diversity of Nervous Systems
31. Compare and contrast the nervous systems of the following animals and explain how variations in design and complexity relate to their phylogeny, natural history, and habitat: hydra, sea star, planarian, insects, mollusks, and vertebrates.
Vertebrate Nervous Systems
32. Compare the structures and functions of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
33. Distinguish between the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
34. Describe the embryonic development of the vertebrate brain.
35. Describe the structures and functions of the following brain regions: medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum, thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
36. Describe the specific functions of the reticular system.
37. Relate the specific regions of the cerebrum to their functions.
38. Distinguish between the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum.
39. Describe the specific functions of the brain regions associated with language, speech, emotions, memory, and learning.
40. Distinguish between long-term depression and long-term potentiation.
41. Describe our current understanding of human consciousness.
42. Explain how research on stem cells and neural development may lead to new treatments for injuries and disease
Sensing, Acting, and Brains1. Differentiate between sensation and perception.
Introduction to Sensory Reception
2. Explain the difference between exteroreceptors and interoreceptors.
3. Describe the four general functions of receptor cells as they convert energy stimuli into changes in membrane potentials and then transmit signals to the nervous system.
4. List and describe the energy stimulus of the five types of receptors.
Photoreceptors and Vision
5. Compare the structures of, and the processing of light by, the eye cups of Planaria, the compound eyes of insects, and the single-lens eyes of mollusks.
6. Using a diagram of the vertebrate eye, identify and give the function of each structure.
7. Describe the functions of the rod cells and cone cells of the vertebrate eye.
8. Explain and compare how the rods and cones of the retina transduce the stimuli into action potentials.
9. Explain how the retina assists the cerebral cortex in the processing of visual information.
Hearing and Equilibrium
10. Using a diagram of the human ear, identify and give the function of each structure.
11. Explain how the mammalian ear functions as a hearing organ.
12. Explain how the mammalian ear functions to maintain body balance and equilibrium.
13. Compare the hearing and equilibrium systems found in nonmammalian vertebrates.
14. Describe the structure and function of statocysts.
15. Explain how many insects detect sound.
Chemoreception: Taste and Smell
16. Explain how the chemoreceptors involved with taste and smell perform their functions
Movement and Locomotion
17. List the advantages and disadvantages associated with moving through
a. an aquatic environmentb. a terrestrial environment
c. air
18. Describe three functions of a skeleton.
19. Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function and explain why they are not found in large terrestrial organisms.
20. Explain how the structure of the arthropod exoskeleton provides both strength and flexibility.
21. Distinguish between an exoskeleton and an endoskeleton.
22. Explain how the skeleton combines with an antagonistic muscle arrangement to provide a mechanism for movement.
23. Explain how body proportions and posture impact physical support on land.
24. Using a diagram, identify the components of the skeletal muscle cell.
25. Explain how muscles contract.
26. Explain how muscle contraction is controlled.
27. Explain how the nervous system produces graded contractions of whole muscles.
28. Explain the adaptive advantages of slow and fast muscle fibers.
29. Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
The Scope of Ecology1. Define ecology and identify the two features of organisms that ecologists try to explain. Discuss examples of experiments that examine these features.
2. Distinguish between the abiotic and biotic components of the environment.
3. Describe the relationship between ecology and evolutionary biology.
4. Distinguish among organismal ecology, population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology, and landscape ecology.
5. Define the precautionary principle and illustrate its usefulness with regard to the ecological issues facing society.
Factors Affecting Distributions of Organisms
6. Describe the flowchart of inquiry used to determine what limits the geographic distribution of a particular species.
7. Describe the problem of introduced species and the specific problems posed by the introduction of African bees and zebra mussels.
8. Explain the "tens rule."
9. Explain how habitat selection can limit the range of otherwise suitable habitats.
10. Describe and illustrate biotic and abiotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms.
11. Explain how climate affects the geographic distribution of organisms.
12. Define and illustrate the concept of a microclimate.
13. Explain how the retreat of North American glaciers 16,000 years ago influenced the distribution of trees.
Aquatic and Terrestrial Biomes
14. Distinguish among the various zones found in aquatic biomes.
15. Define and compare the many types of freshwater and marine biomes.
16. Describe the characteristics of the major terrestrial biomes: tropical forest, savanna, desert, chaparral, temperate grassland, temperate forest, taiga, and tundra.
The Spatial Scale of Distributions
17. Explain why the distribution of a species is often not easily accounted for.
Introduction to Behavior and Behavioral Ecology1. Define behavior.
2. Distinguish between proximate and ultimate questions about behavior.
3. Explain how genes and the environment contribute to behavior. Explain what is unique about innate behavior.
4. Define fixed action patterns and give examples in fish and humans.
5. Explain how mayflies are threatened by an inappropriate response to an environmental stimulus.
6. Describe the evolutionary basis for behavioral ecology. Explain why these adaptations may result in suboptimal behavior.
7. Explain why it is useful to use evolutionary principles as a guide to behavioral research.
8. Explain the optimal foraging theory and illustrate it with examples.
Learning
9. Explain how learning, maturation, and habituation influence behavior.
10. Define imprinting and explain the importance of the sensitive period. Illustrate these concepts using examples from bird song.
11. Distinguish between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
12. Define play and describe several possible adaptive advantages of this behavior.
Animal Cognition
13. Describe the ultimate bases of learning.
14. Describe and illustrate with examples kinesis, taxis, landmarks, cognitive maps, and migration.
15. Explain the problems of defining and studying consciousness.
Social Behavior and Sociobiology
16. Define sociobiology and describe the development of this field of behavior.
17. Define agonistic behavior, dominance hierarchy, and territories; give examples of each.
18. Describe the typical circumstances associated with the defense of territories.
19. Describe the advantages of courtship.
20. Explain how parental investment influences the different mating behaviors of males and females.
21. Define and distinguish between monogamous and polygamous mating relationships and between polygyny and polyandry.
22. Describe how the certainty of paternity influences the development of mating systems.
23. Describe the various modes of communication.
24. Relate an animal's mode of communication to its lifestyle.
25. Explain how honeybees communicate information about the location of sources of food.
26. Discuss why altruistic behavior might evolve.
27. Relate the coefficient of relatedness to the concept of altruism.
28. Define Hamilton's rule and the concept of kin selection.
29. Define reciprocal altruism.
30. Describe the premise of sociobiology.
Characteristics of Populations1. Define the scope of population ecology
2. Define and distinguish between density and dispersion.
3. Explain how ecologists measure the density of a species.
4. Describe conditions that may result in the clumped dispersion, uniform dispersion, and random dispersion of populations.
5. Describe the characteristics of populations that exhibit Type I, Type II, and Type III survivorship curves.
6. Describe the characteristics of populations that exhibit Type I, Type II, and Type III survivorship curves.
Life History Traits
7. Define and distinguish between semelparity and iteroparity.
8. Explain how limited resources affect life histories.
9. Give examples of the trade-off between reproduction and survival.
Population Growth
10. Compare the geometric model of population growth with the logistic model.
11. Explain how an environment's carrying capacity affects the intrinsic rate of increase of a population.
12. Distinguish between r-selected populations and K-selected populations.
13. Explain how a "stressful" environment may alter the standard r-selection and K-selection characteristics.
Population-Limiting Factors
14. Explain how density-dependent factors affect population growth.
15. Explain how density-dependent and density-independent factors may work together to control a population's growth.
16. Explain how predation can affect life history through natural selection.
17. Describe several boom-and-bust population cycles, noting possible causes and consequences of the fluctuations.
Human Population Growth
18. Describe the history of human population growth.
19. Define the demographic transition.
20. Compare the age structures of Italy, Kenya, and the United States. Describe the possible consequences for each country.
21. Describe the problems associated with estimating Earth's carrying capacity.
What Is a Community?1. Explain the relationship between species richness and relative abundance.
2. Define and compare the individualistic hypothesis of H.A. Gleason and the interactive hypothesis of F.E. Clements with respect to communities.
Interspecific Interactions and Community Structure
3. List four possible specific interactions and explain how the relationships affect the population densities of the two species.
4. Explain how interspecific competition may affect community structure.
5. Describe the competitive exclusion principle and explain how competitive exclusion may affect community structure.
6. Define an ecological niche and restate the competitive exclusion principle using the niche concept.
7. Explain how resource partitioning can affect species diversity.
8. Define and compare predation, herbivory, and parasitism.
9. Relate some specific predatory adaptations to the properties of the prey.
10. Describe the defense mechanisms that evolved in plants to reduce predation by herbivores.
11. Explain how cryptic coloration and warning coloration aid an animal in avoiding predators.
12. Distinguish between Batesian mimicry and Müllerian mimicry.
13. Describe how predators use mimicry to obtain prey.
14. Distinguish among endoparasites, ectoparasites, and pathogens.
15. Distinguish among parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism.
16. Distinguish between a food chain and a food web. Describe the factors that transform food chains into food webs.
17. Describe two ways to simplify food webs.
18. Summarize two hypotheses that explain why food chains are relatively short.
19. Explain how dominant and keystone species exert strong control on community structure. Give several examples of each.
20. Describe and distinguish between the bottom-up and top-down models of community organization. Also describe some models that are intermediate between those two extremes.
Disturbance and Community Structure
21. Describe how disturbances affect community structure and composition. Illustrate this point with several well-studied examples.
22. Give examples of humans as widespread agents of disturbance.
23. Describe and distinguish between primary and secondary succession.
24. Describe and distinguish among facilitation, inhibition, and toleration.
25. Describe the process and pattern of succession on moraines in Glacier Bay.
Biogeographic Factors Affecting the Biodiversity of Communities
26. Describe and distinguish between species richness and relative abundance.
27. Describe the data necessary to measure biodiversity.
28. Describe and explain how species richness varies along the equatorial-polar gradient.
29. Define the species-area curve.
30. Explain how species richness on islands varies according to island size and distance from the mainland.
What Is the Ecosystem Approach to Ecology?1. Describe the relationship between autotrophs and heterotrophs in an ecosystem.
2. Explain how decomposition connects all trophic levels in an ecosystem.
3. Explain how the first and second laws of thermodynamics apply to ecosystems.
Primary Production in Ecosystems
4. Explain why the amount of energy used in photosynthesis is so much less than the amount of solar energy that reaches Earth.
5. Define and compare gross primary production and net primary production.
6. Define and compare biomass and standing crop.
7. Compare primary productivity in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems.
Secondary Production in Ecosystems
8. Explain why energy is said to flow rather than cycle within ecosystems. Use the example of insect caterpillars to illustrate energy flow.
9. Define, compare, and illustrate the concepts of production efficiency and trophic efficiency.
10. Distinguish between energy pyramids and biomass pyramids. Explain why both relationships are in the form of pyramids. Explain the special circumstances of inverted biomass pyramids.
11. Explain why food pyramids usually have only four or five trophic levels
12. Define the pyramid of numbers.
13. Explain why worldwide agriculture could feed more people if all humans consumed only plant material.
14. Explain the green-world hypothesis. Describe six factors that keep herbivores in check.
The Cycling of Chemical Elements in Ecosystems
15. Describe the four nutrient reservoirs and the processes that transfer the elements between reservoirs.
16. Explain why it is difficult to trace elements through biogeochemical cycles.
17. Describe the hydrologic water cycle.
18. Describe the nitrogen cycle and explain the importance of nitrogen fixation to all living organisms.
19. Describe the phosphorus cycle and explain how phosphorus is recycled locally in most ecosystems.
20. Explain how decomposition affects the rate of nutrient cycling in ecosystems.
21. Describe the experiments at Hubbard Brook that revealed the key role that plants play in regulating nutrient cycles.
Human Impact on the Chemical Dynamics of the Biosphere
22. Describe how agricultural practices can interfere with nitrogen cycling.
23. Explain how "cultural eutrophication" can alter freshwater ecosystems.
24. Describe the causes and consequences of acid precipitation.
25. Explain why toxic compounds usually have the greatest effect on top-level carnivores.
26. Describe how increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide could affect Earth.
27. Describe how human interference might alter the biosphere.
The Biodiversity Crisis1. Describe the three levels of biodiversity.
2. Explain why biodiversity at all levels is vital to human welfare.
3. List the four major threats to biodiversity and give an example of each.
Conservation at the Population and Species Levels
4. Define and compare the small-population approach and the declining-population approach.
5. Describe the basic steps that are common in the declining-population approach. Describe the case of the declining red-cockaded woodpecker to illustrate this approach.
6. Describe the conflicting demands that accompany species conservation.
Conservation at the Community, Ecosystem, and Landscape Levels
7. Explain how edges and corridors can strongly influence landscape biodiversity.
8. Define biodiversity hot spots and explain why they are important.
9. Explain why natural reserves must be functional parts of landscapes.
10. Define zoned reserves and explain why they are important.
11. Define restoration ecology and describe its goals. Explain the importance of bioremediation and the augmentation of ecosystem processes in restoration efforts.
12. Describe the process of adaptive management.
13. Describe the concept of sustainable development.
14. Explain the goals of the Sustainable Biosphere Initiative.
15. Define biophilia and explain why the concept gives some biologists hope.
1. What specific traits characterizes a prokaryotic cell?2. Be able to explain the purpose of a control in a scientific experiment.
3. Be able to explain why evolution is the central theme of biology.
4. Be able to identify the characteristics of living things.
5. Be able to list the levels of organization (hierarchy) of the living world.
6. Be able to identify the 5 kingdoms of the classification system and an example of each.
7. Be able to identify the premises in the argument proposed by Darwin for natural selection and his descent with modification.
8. Be able to identify the following aspects of the atom, atomic structure and bonds:
a. isotopeb. What determines an atom's chemical properties?
c. atomic number and weight
d. nonpolar covalent molecule
e. polar covalent molecule
f. ionic bond
g. hydrogen bond
h. hydrophobic interaction
9. Be able to relate the following things to the water molecule and its function:
a. pH and the pH scaleb. polarity
c. the universal solvent
10. Be able to identify the following aspects of biochemical molecules:
a. the element most common in living things by dry weightb. glucose and fructose as isomers
c. the functional groups and their properties-carbonyl, methyl, amine, sulfhydryl, carboxyl, hydroxyl
d. phospholipids
e. structural characteristics of a protein-primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
f. structural differences in DNA and RNA
g. dehydration synthesis (condensation) ,bonding and hydrolysis
h. anabolism's and catabolism's relationship to synthesis and degradation
i. structure of starch and cellulose
j. normal function of carbohydrates
k. peptide bonds, glycosidic bonds, ester bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, disufide bonds
l. complementarity in the nucleic acids
m. be able to identify the structural formulas of an amino acid, a cellulose molecule, a nucleic acid nitrogen base (pyrimidine), phospholipid, alpha glucose (monosaccharide).
11. Be able to identify the following aspects of cell structure and function, enzyme chemistry, respiration and photosynthesis:
a. how an enzyme catalyzes a reactionb. ATP structure and function
c. organelles that contain DNA
d. chloroplast function
e. function of ribosomes
f. facilitated diffusion of glucose
g. the function of glycolysis
h. oxidative phosphorylation
i. mitochondian structure and function
j. the Krebs cycle and CO2 , NADH, FADH2, and ATP production
k. oxidation and reduction reactions in the glycolytic pathway
l. substrate-level phosphorylation
m. acetyl group and the iintermediate step before entering the mitochondian
n. identify the genral actions in the process of glycolysis, oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, Krebs cycle, chemiosmosis
o. compare respiration and photosynthesis
p. primary functions of the light phase of photosynthesis
12. Be able to identify the phases and functions of the cell cycle, mitotic and meiotic processes:
a. diploid and haploidb. cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
c. the importance of the G1 stage and the categories of cells
d. prophase I and anaphase I of meiosis
e. with provided drawings identify phases and events in mitosis and meiosis
13. Be able to relate to the following situations and circumstances that are inherent in genetic interactions:
a. the inheritance of the cystic fibrosisb. homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype, F1, F2, etc., recessive dominant
c. incomplete dominance and the snapdragon
d. monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and phenotypic ratios
e. polygenic inheritance and example
f. sex-linked traits-colorblindness
14. Be able to identify the following characteristics and functions of the nucleic acids:
a. base pair compositionb. replication-leading and lagging strands
c. all of the elements in DNA
d. the type of bonds holding the bases together in the middle of the double helix
e. relationship between DNA, a gene, and a chromosome
f. triplet, codon, anticodon
g. decoding a mRNA strand
h. complementarity in transcription and translation
i. introns and exons
j. the function of reverse transcriptase
k. the function of the operator locus in an inducible operon
15. Be able to relate the following factors, situations and circumstances to the theory of evolution:
a. the factors that make up the essence of the Darwin-Wallace theory of natural selectionb. Lamarck and the giraffe's neck
c. what Darwin didn't know that would have supported his theory
d. Charles Lyell's contribution to the evolutionary theory
e. a definition of evolution
f. homologous structures-the wing of a bat
g. Hutton and Lyell's notion of uniformitarianism
h. Thomas Malthus's influence on Darwin-food and population growth
i. The Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection
j. arguments about the mechanisms of evolution-gradualism vs. punctuated equilibrium
INDEX